In Romanticism, sensation is like the raw feelings and experiences we have, including emotions and awe-inspiring moments. Perception is how we understand and interpret those sensations, influenced by our imagination, feelings, and how we see the world.

4- human nature? how to live the life? religion?

In Romanticism, people see human nature as full of feelings, imagination, and a strong bond with nature, valuing personal freedom and expression. Living life the Romantic way means following your passions, being spontaneous, and finding fulfillment through nature and your own emotions. When it comes to religion, Romantics tend to focus more on personal spirituality, intuition, and being amazed by the world, rather than just following strict rules from traditional beliefs.

 Other ways of knowing, such as intuition, or religious faith, are rejected.

Ernst Mach: he is a physicist and philosopher. According to Mach, says that we can not experience the physical world through direct experience.

 Comte: that the only thing

we can be sure of is that which is publicly

observable.

-       Ernst worked more on physics and philosophy of science, while Comte worked on social sciences such as sociology.

Comte's positivism argues that knowledge is based on verifiable observations and empirical methods. Mach is known for philosophical views such as phenomenalism. Mach's approach emphasizes that scientific theories should explain observable phenomena and that science should be based solely on experimentation.

 Other ways of knowing, such as intuition, or religious faith, are rejected.

Ernst Mach: he is a physicist and philosopher. According to Mach, says that we can not experience the physical world through direct experience.

-       Ernst worked more on physics and philosophy of science, while Comte worked on social sciences such as sociology.

Comte's positivism argues that knowledge is based on verifiable observations and empirical methods. Mach is known for philosophical views such as phenomenalism. Mach's approach emphasizes that scientific theories should explain observable phenomena and that science should be based solely on experimentation.

(We prepared the information with İrem and Diala)

All ideas come from sensory experience

The mind is only a name given to the flow of ideas, memories, imagination and feelings.

John Locke: Believed that at birth the human mind is a “tabula rasa” or a blank slate.

  Thomas Hobbs: Man is a machine functioning within a larger machine.

  George Berkeley: Perception is the only reality

Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) is sometimes also referred to as the founder of British empiricism. Humans were machines. Humans were viewed as machines functioning within a larger machine.

The availability of mental imagery, for Hobbes imagination, was explained by the fact that sense impressions decay over time, as did memory; “So ... imagination and memory are but one thing which for divers considerations hath divers names” (1651/1962, p. 24). Dreams then have this same origin: “The ima- ginations of them that sleep are those we call dreams. And these also, as all other imaginations, have been before, either totally or by parcels, in the sense” (Hobbes, 1651/1962, p. 25). The reason that dreams are typically so vivid is because during sleep there are no new sensory impressions to com- pete with the imagination.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a Romantic philosopher who championed individual freedom and the purity of nature. He believed society corrupted human goodness, advocating for a return to a more natural state. Rousseau's ideas heavily influenced Romanticism, inspiring later writers to celebrate emotion, individualism, and the beauty of the natural world.

On a general level, while Empiricism tries to explain the world from an objective perspective, Romanticism argues the opposite. The Romantic school assumes that everyone evaluates what they see from their own subjective perspective and sees it that way. Thus, we comprehend what we see and the knowledge we acquire from our human point of view and somehow recreate the world in our minds with our own minds.

It is mostly about the meaning of human existence, freedom of choice, and the uniqueness of each individual. In existentialism, the terms responsibility and freedom are quite important. Each person decides for himself. Each person builds his own values and these are not decided by any other authority than the person himself.  There is not a source or authority for actions rather than individuals. So, there is anxiety of choice in existentialism because each person will pay the price individually. It was popular in the mid-twentieth century and it can be considered as a part of onotlogy. In terms of psychology, Freud was very pleased due to Nietzche’s ideas and analysis about the role of psychology in culture and history.

◦       Søren Kierkegaard: Truth is always what a person believes privately and emotionally. Here the terms privately and emotionallay refer to existentialism.

◦       Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche: All people have a will to power

◦       To control one’s life, tendency to gain mastery over one’s self and one’s destiny.

Again, here the term “one’s self” refer to existentialism.

He placed psychological experiences above sensations and characterized sensations as meaningless. His ideas about Romanticism emphasized the importance of individual expression, the exploration of nature, and the reconciliation of opposites.

Schopenhauer:

For Schopenhauer, life itself is the expression of an ultimate force or energy that he called "will". For him, the self is a manifestation of "will", even though most of our motivations are unknown to our conscious mind. This idea is known as the concept of the "unconscious", which is influential in Freudian and Jungian psychology. He is often referred to as the philosopher of pessimism because he thought that this "will" had no purpose or goal, but was merely a blind effort. His ideas are similar to Buddhism, as he thinks that existence always entails suffering.

Hegel: This means that all elements of knowledge are the work of the mind. According to Hegel, man experiences a world that is outside himself in knowledge, that he did not create, and that is independent of man. True knowledge is attained by relating isolated instances to the “whole.”

Hegel proposed the concept of alienation

(self-estrangement) Herbart believed that one learns only from studying external and real objects in the world as well as the ideas that come about from observing them. Examining the difference between the actual existence of an object and its appearance, Herbart concluded that "the world is a world of things-in-themselves [and] the things-in-themselves are perceivable"

Spinoza: Proposed that God, nature, and mind were aspects of the same substance

God, nature, and mind were inseparable.

For Rousseau, humans are basically good – born good but are made bad by societal institutions.

Suggested that education should take advantage of natural impulses rather than distort them.

Educational institutions should create a situation in which a child’s natural abilities and interests can be nurtured.

The Law of Three Stages.

According to Comte, societies pass through stages that are defined in terms of the way its members explain natural events. The first stage, and the most primitive, is theological, and explanations are based on supersti- tion and mysticism. In the second stage, which is metaphysical, explanations are based on unseen essences, principles, causes, or laws. During the third and highest stage of development, the scientific description is emphasized over explanation, and the prediction and control of natural phenomena becomes all important. In other words, during the scientific stage, positivism is accepted. Comte used the term sociology to describe the study of how different societies compared in terms of the three stages of development.

Stressed the meaning of human existence, freedom of choice, and the uniqueness of each individual.

The most important aspects of humans are their personal, subjective interpretations of life and the choices they make in light of those interpretations.

◦Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche: All people have a will to power

◦To control one’s life, tendency to gain mastery over one’s self and one’s destiny.