https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q CRIM 232 Final Project en-us 2022-02-18 15:46:19 UTC 2022-05-02 02:20:50 UTC hello@padlet.com msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2055482927 Opioids have taken the public spotlight in recent years. The drugs are highly addictive, and this drives misuse of both prescribed and illicit opioids. In 2017, the opioid crisis was declared a public health emergency. Between 1991 and 2011, the number of opioid prescriptions tripled and overdose fatalities climbed (Nolan & Amico, 2016).]]> 2022-02-18 15:49:26 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2055482927 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2087036477 According to NIDA (2021), of patients prescribed opioids for pain management:

• 21-29% abuse them
• 8-12% develop an opioid use disorder

]]> 2022-03-09 22:55:14 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2087036477 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2087041443 The opioid epidemic is a significant financial burden. The CDC estimates the total cost of opioid misuse is $78.5 billion every year in the U.S. These costs are associated with the healthcare and criminal justice systems. 

Beyond economic costs, such a serious drug crisis has other consequences. Opioids have torn apart communities, and such an interaction can produce negative mental health effects. Opioid addiction is not just an individual problem, but one that affects families, communities, and the nation as a whole. (NIDA, 2021).]]> 2022-03-09 23:01:07 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2087041443 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2087044242 The Opioid Crisis has been termed the worst drug epidemic in the history of the U.S. (Hagan & Daigle, 2020). This column discusses the prevalence of opioid misuse, including the costs associated with the epidemic, as well as the origins of the issue.]]> 2022-03-09 23:03:39 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2087044242 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2087045498 This column discusses the interaction between opioid misuse and the criminal justice system. ]]> 2022-03-09 23:05:03 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2087045498 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2087047911 Those incarcerated with opioid use disorders rarely receive treatment, and they frequently resume opioid use following release. Within the first two weeks of release, risk of death is 12 times higher due to overdose. Additionally, research has shown that untreated opioid use disorders are associated with returns to criminal activity and reincarceration (NIDA, 2021).

These statistics illustrate the importance of providing treatment for opioid use disorder within the criminal justice system. Many states do not provide inmates with access to medications targeted toward treating opioid use disorder, despite the evidence supporting their use (NIDA, 2021).]]> 2022-03-09 23:07:45 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2087047911 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2087049290 This TEDTalk discusses how the perception of addiction needs to change in order to make progress. It is fueled by a lack of connections, rather than a desire for drugs. Solutions to the opioid epidemic require a new lens that focuses less on criminalization and more on harm reduction strategies. ]]> 2022-03-09 23:09:18 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2087049290 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2087050401 The West Virginia House of Delegates passed HB 2184 in January of this year, which harshens penalties for exposing emergency responders and government representatives to fentanyl. Fentanyl or "other harmful drug" exposure would result in a misdemeanor and fine of $500, while exposure that causes "physical harm" would result in a felony charge, up to five years in jail, and a fine of $2,000. Proponents of the bill argue that it will protect first responders; however, opponents state the bill will be difficult to implement and could create more harm than good. The bill will now go to the Senate.

According to Dr. Robin Pollini, a West Virginia University School of Medicine associate professor, passive fentanyl exposure cannot result in toxicity. Further, a 2018 study found that skin absorption of the drug is highly unlikely to result in toxicity (Coyne, 2022). ]]> 2022-03-09 23:10:34 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2087050401 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2087051000 This column will focus on current reform measures being implemented across the U.S and in West Virginia. Harm reduction strategies are now being employed across the nation in order to reduce overdose deaths and provide treatment without stigmatizing those who misuse opioids. ]]> 2022-03-09 23:11:15 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2087051000 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2087051560 This column will highlight relevant theories and perspectives regarding drug abuse and addiction.]]> 2022-03-09 23:11:55 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2087051560 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2089496499 This infographic from the U.S. Department of Human Services (2021) describes statistics from 2019-2020 regarding opioid misuse. The effects of opioids are widescale and harmful. 1.6 million people suffered from opioid use disorder, which is a problem that needs to be better addressed. ]]> 2022-03-11 01:33:41 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2089496499 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2089513510 Deaths related to the opioid epidemic can be divided into three waves, as illustrated by this graph. The first began in the 1990s, as deaths related to prescribed opioids began to rise. Overdose deaths involving heroin sharply increased in 2010, establishing the second wave. The third, beginning in 2013, consisted of overdose deaths involving synthetic opioids, particularly fentanyl (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2021).]]> 2022-03-11 01:42:46 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2089513510 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2089536256 Prior to the 1980s, pain was rarely treated with opioids. Often, pain would go under-treated, and campaigns began to rally for increased access to pain management drugs. New standards for pain management lifted limits on physician prescriptions. Additionally, two studies emphasized that opioids are non-addictive, despite providing no scientific evidence. The developing culture surrounding increased pain management created the perfect environment for Purdue Pharma to release OxyContin. 

Purdue Pharma widely promoted the use of OxyContin to lawmakers and physicians, claiming it was highly effective with little chance of patient addiction. As prescriptions skyrocketed, so too did opioid misuse. Purdue Pharma later admitted to knowing the drug was highly addictive, and they paid the price in a 2007 lawsuit in which they were fined over $600 million (DeWeerdt, 2019).]]> 2022-03-11 01:55:55 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2089536256 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2090732376 Dopesick, aired in 2021, explores the origins of the opioid crisis from the perspective of a small town doctor in rural Virginia. The community quickly becomes addicted to the "miracle drug" OxyContin, and overdoses and crime rates climb. The show consists of 8 episodes and is available to watch on Hulu (Hulu, 2021).]]> 2022-03-11 16:22:58 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2090732376 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2090768851 Bills like HB 2184 ignore both current medical knowledge of opioid exposure and our understanding of addiction. Not only is medical misinformation placed into policy, but those suffering from overdoses are treated with a stigma of criminality, which is associated with ideas behind labeling theory.]]> 2022-03-11 16:45:27 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2090768851 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2090788755 One harm reduction strategy that has made great strides in West Virginia is the distribution of naloxone. Naloxone is an overdose reversal drug that can be used to save lives. Campuses across the state have implemented "Naloxboxes" that contain two doses of the drug and instructions on how to administer it. Additionally, many campuses have begun naloxone trainings to increase awareness. This strategy is a great way to prevent unnecessary overdose deaths (Carassco, 2022).]]> 2022-03-11 16:57:44 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2090788755 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2090799411 Medication-Assisted Treatment (MAT) programs allow those suffering from opioid use disorder to obtain a stable dose in a supervised environment, thus reducing cravings for illicit opioid use. In combination with therapy, treatments help to reach recovery with the support of professionals. MATs have been linked to a reduction in criminal activity, reliance on illicit opioids, less engagement in behaviors that increase the risk for HIV, and lower overdose rates (Prevention Solutions, 2022).]]> 2022-03-11 17:04:43 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2090799411 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2090804227 To address the opioid epidemic, West Virginia has enacted several laws meant to reduce overdose deaths. The 911 Good Samaritan Law prevents those who witness or aid an overdose victim from being arrested after notifying the police. The law has resulted in an increase in 911 calls and fewer deaths.

Huntington, West Virginia has been active in attempts to reduce overdose deaths and opioid abuse. They created the first needle exchange program in the state, established a center for babies born with addictions, and programs for students affected by parents who have been arrested for drug use (Leavitt Partners, 2017).]]> 2022-03-11 17:08:15 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2090804227 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2091046382 According to Hagan and Daigle (2020), crime associated with addiction is largely due to illegal means of obtaining money to afford expensive illicit drugs. Two perspectives on the connection between drug use and crime are the psychopharmacological and systemic effects. The former states that drugs alter the body in ways that encourage criminal activity, while the latter postulates that crime results from a lack of formal resolutions to solve disputes. ]]> 2022-03-11 20:01:46 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2091046382 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2091047958 A major theory in analyzing drug abuse is labeling theory. The theory states that people are deviant because they are labeled as such. The labels that are attached to an act, rather than the act itself, dictate what is considered crime. Some of the major assumptions of labeling theory as explained by Schrag (1971) include that an individual only becomes a criminal once they have been designated as such by authorities, not by breaking the law, as well as how getting caught begins the process of labeling (Hagan & Dailge, 2020). In terms of the opioid epidemic, labeling those who abuse drugs as criminals may further push abusers away from getting help. Laws that label drug users as criminals affect their ability to reenter soceity.]]> 2022-03-11 20:03:16 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2091047958 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2091068331 Social Learning Theory rests on the ideas of positive and negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement refers to rewards given in response to a particular behavior, while negative reinforcement refers to the removal of something negative in response to a behavior (Hagan & Daigle, 2020).
Drug use may be positively reinforced through the desired physiological effects, or it may be negatively reinforced through withdrawal symptoms to encourage another dose (Mosher & Akins, 2021). For example, opioids release dopamine, which induces a pleasurable feeling, thus positively reinforcing the behavior. However, withdrawal symptoms, such as vomiting or sweating, may encourage more drug use (Smith, 2020).]]> 2022-03-11 20:24:35 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2091068331 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2091068434 Some theories posit that a biological or genetic basis exists that predisposes individuals towards addiction. One theory, sensitization theory, argues that chronic drug use can alter brain activity and increase risk for continued use, cravings, and relapse. Areas of the brain responsible for reward and punishment are changed by the drugs, and this alters the natural motivation system (Mosher & Akins, 2021).]]> 2022-03-11 20:24:41 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2091068434 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2091099752 The staggering issue of opioid misuse and overdose is a concern for both public health and criminology. Opioid abuse is costly to communities, can be exacerbated by the criminal justice system, and requires comprehensive reform. The opioid epidemic has become a looming figure over the nation, particularly in the state of West Virginia. I will first examine the prevalence and origins of the problem, theories and perspectives that may explain the issue, its interaction with the criminal justice system, and finally proposed reforms.]]> 2022-03-11 20:58:00 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2091099752 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2091132967 This Google Doc contains a list of all references used for this project. ]]> 2022-03-11 21:42:15 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2091132967 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2091134117 The opioid epidemic has drastically affected the nation, as well as West Virginia. This column will discuss the opioid epidemic broadly and in terms of how it has impacted the state.]]> 2022-03-11 21:44:10 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2091134117 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2091137310 Research has shown that although opioids have swept the nation, certain areas and populations across the country are affected differently. I feel that community-based solutions are necessary in order to curb the climbing fatality statistics. For example, in the state of West Virginia, Huntington has created their own approach to solve the issue locally. More access to healthcare and treatment for the underprivileged, as well as an emphasis on community care, is needed.]]> 2022-03-11 21:49:07 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2091137310 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2091145668 Overall, I found labeling theory to be most associated with current approaches to opioid addiction and abuse. Removing the stigma surrounding drug addiction is vital in order to move forward with reducing overdose deaths and increasing treatment options. ]]> 2022-03-11 21:59:39 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2091145668 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2091406701 Jan Rader, a firefighter from Huntington, West Virginia, discusses how the opioid epidemic has impacted her city and the lives of first responders. She emphasizes the importance of making positive change and eliminating the stigma associated with substance use disorder. 

Her statements highlight the important role of first responders in combatting the opioid problem. First responders are in direct contact with the community, and they have the power to go beyond just saving lives. ]]> 2022-03-12 06:16:03 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2091406701 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2165523430 According to Luo et al., (2021), in 2017, West Virginia experienced a cost of over $13,000 million for both opioid use disorder and fatal opioid overdose. They also reported that per capita cost of fatal opioid overdose was highest for West Virginia at $5,298. ]]> 2022-04-30 23:47:13 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2165523430 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2165523698 West Virginia has experienced the brunt of the opioid epidemic. In 2015, the state had the highest number of opioid-related overdose deaths in the nation. This infographic from NIDA (2020) illustrates the rise in overdose deaths, as well as the rise of deaths attributed to synthetic opioids like fentanyl. The decline in mental health, abundance of labor-intensive jobs, like coal-mining, and overprescribing of opioids contributed to West Virginia's opioid crisis (Bowden et al., 2018). ]]> 2022-04-30 23:48:21 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2165523698 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2165551616 As stated, wave 1 deaths were the result of prescribed opioids. Increasing amounts of prescriptions and increased demand for pain management contributed to wave 1 fatalities.

Heroin was responsible for deaths during wave 2. Previous prescription opioid abusers reported transitioning to heroin due to its low cost and availability. Additionally, the opioid OxyContin was reformulated to deter abuse in 2010, which may have contributed to increased heroin use. 

Wave 3 saw deaths related to fentanyl use. The deaths have been largely located in the Midwest and Northeast, and they appear to be a supply-side event rather than a culturally-driven demand (Ciccarone, 2019).]]> 2022-05-01 01:27:18 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2165551616 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2165555002 At the peak of the opioid crisis in 2010, white Americans made up the majority of overdose deaths. Now, however, Black Americans are facing the fastest overdose death rates. The rise in deaths has been attributed to Mexican cartels mixing fentanyl into street drugs. A recent study stated that African Americans are at higher risk for exposure to fentanyl as they most often rely upon street drug supplies (Mann, 2022).]]> 2022-05-01 01:39:24 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2165555002 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2165570408 The Sackler family, owners of Purdue Pharma, have faced thousands of lawsuits as a result of their involvement in the opioid crisis. The family recently agreed to pay $6 billion towards communities negatively impacted by the epidemic (U.S.News, 2022).]]> 2022-05-01 02:35:34 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2165570408 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2166065160 A recent study predicted over 1.2 million more overdose deaths in the next ten years, indicating the need for more resources and healthcare options (Mann, 2022).]]> 2022-05-01 23:22:35 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2166065160 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2166071056 Research has indicated that individuals who use opioids are much more likely to be arrested compared to those who do not. For those suffering from the effects of opioids, opioid agonist treatment is often used. However, a 2014 study found that only 6 percent of criminal justice cases involving individuals who abuse opioids received opioid agonist treatment. Furthermore, only 15 percent of counties across the U.S. are equipped with licensed opioid treatment programs that provide methadone, an agonist drug (Galoustian, 2022).]]> 2022-05-01 23:35:10 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2166071056 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2166073319 Shocking increases have been seen in opioid overdose death rates in the last decade. It was reported that Black Americans experienced an increase in opioid deaths by 355 percent between 2010 and 2018. In the same time frame, deaths increased by 218 percent for Hispanic Americans (Galoustian, 2022). ]]> 2022-05-01 23:39:43 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2166073319 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2166106160 In order to fully address the problem, we must provide treatment to individuals who are incarcerated. Ignoring the problem does nothing to bring about change.]]> 2022-05-02 00:30:03 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2166106160 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2166113241 Medication-assisted treatment (MAT) has yet to be embraced by the criminal justice system. Many jails require withdrawal of all opioids while in custody. In fact, only around half of all drug courts allow MATs to be used for treatment. Concerns about cost, regulations, and availability have contributed to its slow incorporation. However, studies have indicated that using MAT can decrease drug use, overdoses, and reincarcerations (SAMHSA, 2019).]]> 2022-05-02 00:38:06 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2166113241 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2166138905 A growing field in the area of treatment for opioid abuse is telemedicine, which uses technology to provide treatment access. Many apps are on the market that offer support, physician consultations, or even ways to mail medications to one's home. Although this may offer more options for those who can afford it, it also raises concerns for the populations most hard-hit by the opioid crisis who lack such access. Those struggling with financial hardships and housing accessibility may not benefit from such apps. However, telemedicine may provide more access to help and bring awareness to this issue (Rinker, 2022).]]> 2022-05-02 01:10:57 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2166138905 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2166147786 Harm reduction refers to the strategy of acknowledging that drug use occurs rather than ignoring it or criminalizing it in order to reduce the harmful effects to both the individual and public health as a whole. According to the Minnesota Department of Health (n.d.), it involves transitioning from "safer use, to managed use, [and] to abstinence," as well as meeting the patient "where they're at." This method would fall under the approach of labeling theory; by not stigmatizing drug use, individuals may be more likely to receive treatment.]]> 2022-05-02 01:20:58 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2166147786 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2166157813 Although biological theories are not inherently criminological, they can be used to explain why individuals may commit crimes or act in deviant ways contrary to societal norms.]]> 2022-05-02 01:32:12 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2166157813 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2166167967 The opioid epidemic has been an ever-present issue for over three decades. What once began as an effort to increase pain management has become a public health threat. As the third wave continues, action is necessary in order to reduce overdose deaths. Additionally, costs related to the crisis are exceedingly high, particularly for West Virginia.]]> 2022-05-02 01:44:53 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2166167967 msjordan1017 https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2166178394 Not only is the opioid epidemic a public health issue, but it also affects the criminal justice system. A correlation exists between opioid addiction and involvement in the criminal justice system, and it is necessary to address how to best treat these individuals. Often, these individuals must undergo complete withdrawal while incarcerated, and this can often lead to relapse and fatal overdose upon release. MATs have shown to be effective in reducing this potential.]]> 2022-05-02 01:58:21 UTC https://padlet.com/msjordan1017/zvjznxa52gcow50q/wish/2166178394