Displacement-taking out frustrations

Projection-attributes their unacceptable thoughts onto others

Rationilization-distortion of "the facts" to make an event or an impulse less threatening

Reaction Formation-person outwardly opposes something they inwardly desire, but that they find unacceptable.

1. Unconditioned Stimulus (US): This is a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without any prior learning. For example, in Pavlov's famous experiments with dogs, food was the unconditioned stimulus.

2. Unconditioned Response (UR): This is the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus. In Pavlov's experiments, the salivation of dogs in response to food was the unconditioned response.

3. Neutral Stimulus (NS): Initially, this is a stimulus that has no intrinsic meaning or association with the unconditioned response. In Pavlov's experiments, a bell ringing was a neutral stimulus before any conditioning took place.

4. Conditioned Stimulus (CS): This is the neutral stimulus after it has been paired with the unconditioned stimulus and now elicits a conditioned response. In Pavlov's experiments, the bell became the conditioned stimulus.

5. Conditioned Response (CR): This is the learned response to the conditioned stimulus, which occurs after the conditioning has taken place. In Pavlov's experiments, the salivation of dogs in response to the bell (after it had been paired with food) became the conditioned response.

1. Reinforcement: This refers to any event or stimulus that, when following a behavior, increases the likelihood of that behavior being repeated. Reinforcement can be positive (adding something desirable) or negative (removing something undesirable).

   • Positive Reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus to strengthen a behavior. For example, giving a child a piece of candy for completing their homework.

   • Negative Reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus to strengthen a behavior. For instance, taking pain medication to alleviate a headache.

2. Punishment: This involves the presentation of an aversive stimulus or the removal of a desirable stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior recurring. Similar to reinforcement, punishment can be positive (adding something undesirable) or negative (removing something desirable).

   • Positive Punishment: Adding an aversive stimulus to weaken a behavior. For instance, giving a child a time-out for misbehaving.

   • Negative Punishment: Removing a desirable stimulus to weaken a behavior. An example is taking away a teenager's phone for breaking curfew.

3. Operant Behavior: This is the behavior that operates on the environment to produce certain consequences.

Punishment- want to get rid of undesired behavior

Both are effective.

1. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): This is the difference between what a learner can do independently and what they can do with assistance or guidance from a more knowledgeable person. Vygotsky argued that learning occurs in the ZPD, where a learner is challenged but supported by more knowledgeable individuals, such as teachers, peers, or parents.

2. Scaffolding: Scaffolding is the support provided by a more knowledgeable person to help a learner bridge the gap between their current level of ability and their potential development in the ZPD. As the learner becomes more competent, the level of support is gradually reduced.