• Difficulties talking and/or understanding words

What causes Developmental Language Disorder (DLD)?

• A Neurodevelopmental condition

• Multilingualism does not cause DLD. 

What are the effects of Developmental Language Disorder (DLD)?

• Effects speaking, listening, reading, writing, learning, social interactions and self-esteem

Misconceptions about Developmental Language Disorder (DLD):

• Not a problem with articulating speech sounds

• Not a problem with phonological awareness and decoding

• Not a problem with social skills

• Not a problem with intelligence.

• Not a problem with motivation or emotion.

Signs & Symptoms of Developmental Language Disorder (DLD):

• Problems with language structure

• Problems within verbal working memory

• Problems with academic performance

• Difficulties with reading and writing

Some Classroom Strategies, Tips & Tools:

• Learning about DLD and sharing info with colleagues and students

• Measuring language comprehension in early grades to identify DLD early on

• If you notice a child struggling socially or academically, ensure that language testing is completed to rule out or confirm DLD. 

• Break down complex instructions and language, and use visual supports

• Ask students to repeat instructions to ensure comprehension

• Facilitate peer interactions

• Collaborate with other educators, including speech-language pathologists, school psychologists, special educators, and support staff, to support students

DLD is a condition where children have issues with language. This can include speaking, reading, writing and even listening. It’s linked to ADHD and dyslexia as half the kids who have it also suffer from one of those conditions. DLD affects 5 to 10% of children but we believe that many go undiagnosed because they can carry on basic conversations and it’s only once they start using more complex language that is starts to present itself.

Causes: It is a neurodevelopment disorder caused be genetic and environmental factors which impact early brain development.

What are the effects of DLD? Children with DLD have trouble expressing their ideas properly and in an organized way. This can make it difficult for people to understand them.

Misconceptions about DLD: It is not caused by multilingualism, and it is something that the child will have throughout their lifetime. Having DLD doesn’t mean they have speech issues, and it is not a reflection on their IQ. DLD has nothing to do with a child’s motivation – they may seem shy or uninterested, but this is a coping mechanism. Children with this may have issues communicating but they are not delayed socially. These students can read; the problem is comprehension of what they have read.

Signs & Symptoms: Symptoms include delayed speech, problems with language structures, difficulty finding words, grammatical errors, trouble with reading and writing, issues with verbal memory and problems understanding instructions or figurative language.

Some Classroom Strategies, Tips & Tools: Have assignments which look for comprehension – summarize a story rather than just read it. It is also helpful to have them recap instructions you’ve given to ensure they actually understand. Help children with DLD engage in conversations with their classmates. Sometimes they may hold back because they’re trying to hide the fact that they’re struggling. It’s also important, if possible, to speak with speech-language pathologists, school psychologists, special educators, and support staff for support.

• Learning is a change in long-term memory (and long-term memory is limitless - we never have to stop learning) 

• Hampered by 1 - Attention and 2 - Working Memory 

  • Attention: our attention system shields us from all but a few things at a time

  • Working Memory: is where we do our active thinking (mental workspace and seat of our consciousness) 

    • Number of items that can be held here is 2-3 for some and 3-5 for others 

2) How knowledge powers all learning

• Prior knowledge is the start to all learning 

  • acquire and construct interconnected and organised schemata of knowledge about that discipline 

• For our students to become independent, inquiring, and critical learners, they must possess sufficient knowledge of whatever it is they are inquiring about or

• critiquing

• Becoming a proficient reader, writer, mathematician, or thinker requires

• sufficient domain-specific knowledge 

3) How great teaching facilitates student learning

• 1: Manage student’s cognitive load. How teachers: 

  • structure their teaching;

  • create a calm and predictable classroom;

  • plan to build the foundational skills and knowledge of students; and

  • embed questioning and tasks during teaching, to constantly check for student understanding and respond to those checks in real-time

• 2: Novices benefit from fully guided instruction, experts less guided 

  • novice learners without guidance can end up working very hard cognitively, as they struggle through the task with methods such as trial and error.

    • Exhaust working memory capacity 

  • Worked example effect 

    • shows that novices benefit from looking at well-structured and fully-solved example problems for them to study and understand

    • Teachers breaking it down for students

  • Expertise Reversal Effect: When students have become proficient in a certain domain, this is the time to actually pull back on the level of guidance, and let students independently apply their understandings

• Fully guided instruction builds the learning foundations and provides a pathway to higher order learning in a given domain.

4) Why we forget most of what we learn, but don't have to (page 60). 

• The forgetting curve means that teaching is always a moving target.

• Retrieval practice reduces forgetting: It’s ‘use it or lose it.’

• Spacing and interleaving structures learning better.

• Daily review is an efficient and effective mechanism to ensure retention.

• Executive function refers to the set of cognitive skills used to direct goal-oriented behavior and manage/organize tasks.

• Used for things like attention, planning & remembering the steps needed for a task, critical/creative thinking, etc

3 major mental skills related to EF include:

• Working Memory: Where information is stored and used temporarily. Brains have (usually fixed) limits on how many new things they can work with at a time, and students utilize working memory as they hold and work with information while navigating words and sentences.

• Cognitive Flexibility: Refers to how our thinking can be creative or open to change based on the current situation. Empathy, creative thinking, and understanding other perspectives are results of cognitive flexibility. Relates a lot to understanding characters/motives in reading

• Inhibitory Control: Control over making impulse decisions. It is used to control attention, behavior, and thoughts, and can be taught with practice in "if-then" planning, stress reduction, self-discipline, etc. It helps students build 'stamina' for reading and pushing through unfamiliar words or meanings.

How does EF relate to reading?

• "Reading involves the ability to decode, comprehend and respond to written texts. Both reading and executive functions rely on our brains to attend, remember things, think, and reason and to problem-solve. Classroom activities that promote attention, working memory, cognitive flexibility, and self-control can help students become more effective readers."

• Research on EF/EF skills & reading is new and if EF skills can/should be taught, but it is known that ->

• EF helps a reader to set goals for reading a text, reading exposes readers to new words which promotes creativity/problem solving, students with poor EF might have trouble with concentration, remembering, inferring

Ways to Support EF in the classroom

• Before Reading

  • Activate prior knowledge

  • Ask students for predicitions

  • Preview text structure/features

• During Reading

  • Encourage questions

  • Take breaks to visualize/annotate

• After Reading

  • Review main ideas

  • Discuss author's intent/perspective

  • Connect to other texts/experiences

• Chunking - making tasks more manageable through smaller steps or the use of checklists, calendars, alarms, etc

• Mnemonics - pictures/acronyms like ROY G BIV

• Scaffolding and Feedback - Tools to help students outline thinking (graphic organizers, templates) and use feedback to gauge strengths/improvements, help them evaluate their own reading, and have students practice incorporating/adjusting feedback

Team #4

What is Dyslexia? 

Dyslexia is a neurological language-based learning disability that is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition, poor spelling, and decoding abilities. Those with dyslexia struggle for a deficit in the phonological component of language; other possible consequences may include problems in reading comprehension, reduced reading experience that can impede the growth of vocabulary and background knowledge. 

What causes Dyslexia?

It is still unclear what causes dyslexia, but anatomical and brain imagery studies show that the brains of those who have dyslexia function and develop differently. Dyslexia is not due to lack of intelligence, or desire to learn; with appropriate teaching methods, students with dyslexia can learn successfully. Dyslexia officers in people of all background and intellectual levels.

What are the effects of Dyslexia?

The impacts of dyslexia vary for every person, it depends on the severity of the condition, and the timeliness and effectiveness of instruction or remediation. The main difficulty is regarding word recognition and reading fluency, spelling, and writing. Some individuals manage to learn early reading and spelling tasks if under the correct instruction. There are times where it is discovered/diagnosed early or later in life depending on the severity of symptoms and when they start to show. 

Misconceptions about Dyslexia : 

There are many myths about dyslexia,which has made it harder for those with the disorder to learn. A common myth is that people with dyslexia can “read backwards”. The reason for their jumbled spelling errors are not due to the fact they read the words backwards, but because they have trouble remembering letter symbols for sounds and letter patterns in words. 

Another misconception is that dyslexia is a disease that can be cured, and if identified and given the proper timely instruction, hard work, and family support, someone with dyslexia can greatly succeed. Those with dyslexia do not have a lower intellectual level, in fact it’s quite the opposite.

Signs & Symptoms of Dyslexia :

General problems that those with dyslexia struggle with 

• Learning to speak 

• Learning letter and their sounds 

• Organizing written and spoken language 

• Memorizing number facts 

• Reading quickly enough to comprehend 

• Keeping up with and comprehending longer reading assignments 

• Spelling 

• Learning a foreign language 

• Correctly doing math operations 

Specific signs got elementary aged children

• Difficulty with remembering simple sequences SCUSE has counting toy 20, making days of the week, or reciting the alphabet

• Difficulty understanding the rhyming of words 

• Trouble recognizing words that begin with the same sound 

• Pronunciation difficulties 

• Trouble easily clapping hands to the rhythm of a song 

• Difficulty with word retrieval 

• Trouble remembering names of people and places

• Difficulty remembering spoken directions  

Some Classroom Strategies, Tips & Tools:

• Provide a supportive and including learning environment 

• Listen to their stresses and anxiety that relates to dyslexia and the problems they are experiencing 

• Rewarding effort and not just the product 

• Try to be as encouraging as possible 

• Help set realistic goals that can be accomplished for themselves, 

• Promote success and do not dwell on failure

• No limits to long-term memory

• Learning: a change in long-term memory

• Attention 

  • Let's us focus on a stimulus and block out all others. Difficult to learn when attention is not on the specific task. 

• Working Memory

  • Space in our brain that contains information to be retrieved. However, it is limited, making learning difficult.

• Tips for improving learning

  • The attention of students is most important in learning

  • Using engagement norms it makes it easier for students to focus and pay attention to tasks

    • Ex. Attention signals, read-alongs

  • Information must be in manageable sections.

  • Increase amount of opportunities students have to learn the same concept

How knowledge powers all learning

• Prior knowledge is the start of all learning

  • Learning to do anything requires prior knowledge of the topic

  • They learn and connect a web or knowledge about that topic

  • Working memory needs prior knowledge to have something to go off of. 

  • Called domain-specific knowledge

• Knowledge in long-term memory of a topic makes it easier to acquire more information because it does not overwhelm the working memory. It is more easily committed to long-term memory. 

How great teaching facilitates student learning

• Managing the cognitive load of students

• Maximizing time spent on students guided by the teacher 

  • Novices benefit from fully guided instruction, and experts benefit from less guided instruction

  • Inquiry tasks benefit students to learn as they struggle. But without any guidance, they will exhaust their working memory on problem solving leaving no room for actual learning. 

  • Well-structured and fully solved example problems will provide students with what they need to learn 

  • When students become experts, explicit instruction interferes with what they will learn 

• Building knowledge in a sequential way

• Ensuring students are benefiting from instruction to go from novice to expert in the subject

  • Checking students for understanding 

Why we forget most of what we learn, but don't have to (page 60)

• Teaching is always a moving target

  • Students forget a lot of information, so teachers have to activate prior knowledge with frequent practice to counteract the forgetting curve

• “Use it or lose it” 

  • If we don’t practice the information we know, it will be replaced by something else in long-term memory

  • Self-testing and daily review are key to retention 

    • Aka retrieval practice 

1) How to help students improve their working memory

Working memory: is your brain's "mental workspace" that temporarily stores and manipulates information for immediate use. It is essential for learning, problem solving and managing daily tasks. 

Ex)  Holding a phone number in your mind while dialing. 

Tips/tricks for Directions: 

→ Should be repeated to reinforce information: This helps retention, ability to hold, recall and process information.

→ Should be taught in sequential order: Supports working memory through activation of prior knowledge, and organizes the information in a logical sequence to better scaffold students' learning and retention of new knowledge. 

→ Should involve describing what's next: Descriptive narration is important in describing what is coming next in student’s learning so they can organize information and reduce cognitive load. 

→Should involve verbal and written instruction: creates externalized memory to reference which then relieves students of holding information within working memory

Tips/tricks for Routines: 

→ Should be consistent expectations, rules and routines : allow for students to know what is coming next, relieving mental effort and less working memory usage. 

→ Should involve making associations to events or common routines: this allows working memory to link new information with something already known by students

→ educators should encourage students to utilize their fingers to track progress, or next steps. Ex) a student could track the steps of a math solution assigning each of there fingers to steps that help them finish the problem.

→ Use visuals in lessons to support visual memory or dual coding. 

Dual coding: a learning strategy that combines verbal and visual information to improve memory and understanding. By presenting information through both words and images, the brain processes it through two separate channels, which creates parallel pathways to long-term memory and makes it easier to recall information later. 

Visual memory: the ability to retain and recall visual information, such as objects, faces, and events. It involves encoding, storing, and retrieving visual data, and can be broken down into two main types: short-term (holding an image briefly) and long-term (storing images over extended periods). 

Strategies for accessing or recalling: Learning

→ Acting out learning: using active hands-on activities that apply or demonstrate what has been learnt 

ex) role playing a book you’re reading in class

→ Teaching partners : Using time to allow students to teach each other in partners promotes confidence, recall and clarifies understanding of the information 

ex) Johnny and Mark partner up after learning about photosynthesis and teach each other. Johnny didn't understand some parts but Mark was able to clarify which supports Johnny’s knowledge and reinforces what Mark has learnt. 

→ Visualizations: Creating a mental image supports students ability to retrieve and retain information 

→ Chunking information and directions: Offers students a way to group meaningful information by lessening cognitive load and supporting their retrieval processes. Offers context clues to supporting memory, can support encoding and retrieval of information as multiple brain pathways are activate.This creates meaningful associations.

Chunking: a memory technique that involves breaking down large pieces of information into smaller, more manageable, and meaningful "chunks". This process helps to bypass the limits of working memory, making information easier to absorb, organize, and recall. 

Teaching effective working memory expansion:

→ repeat skill building throughout the semester. 

→ With each skill you should:

1. Explain the what, why and the how behind the concept and how it works neurologically

2. Link concept to what student wants in term of success

3. Scaffold students mastery of concept and related skills. 

   
   

2) Retrieval Activities that Help Learning Stick 

Four essential cognitive processes to support lasting learning:

1. Attention: what we focus on and notice 

2. Encoding: How we process and make sense of it

3. Storage: How we keep that information in our brains 

4. Retrieval: How we access and use stored information 

→ Retrieval plays the most crucial role in long term retention of learning. 

Retrieval strategies:

1. Read, Pause and Retrieve: Read a short text aloud to students, pause and have the students turn the page upside down and write down as much as they can remember. To deepen thought processes,  have students then compare, add details, clarify gaps or respond to a prompt such as “how does todays lesson connect to previous?”

Why?

→ Immediate retrieval after reading improves comprehension, reinforces encoding and helps students monitor their understanding 

Memory encoding: the brain's process of transforming sensory information into a form that can be stored and later retrieved as a memory.

Stages of memory formation: Encoding→ storage→retrieval 

2. No-quiz quick writes: Set a timer, have students “stop and jot” in response to a prompt or personal connection. Collect the writing and keep them in a portfolio after each unit to measure growth over time.

Why?

→ These low-stake writes foster relevance and creativity while tracking progress through word count or proficiency goals. 

→writing from memory strengthens retrieval pathways,deepens personal connection and supports metacognitive reflection 

Metacognitive reflection: the process of thinking about your own thinking to better understand and improve your learning. It involves planning your approach to a task, monitoring your progress as you work, and evaluating the outcome to guide future efforts.

3. Mini quizzes (connection and reflection activity): Pass out five questions: true/false, matching, images, or open ended. Students can discuss, pair, share, self-check or reflect silently.  

Why?

→ Retrieval improves retention, lowers anxiety and builds deeper comprehension. 

4. Stoplight reading (Interleave and retrieve): Have students engage with a text using the stoplight sstem for highlighting.

Red: I don't understand 

Yellow: I can't figure out based on context 

Green: Know well 

Why?

→ Visually helps students assess their understanding, while retrieval promotes active recall. 

→ combined with interleaving, it strengthens connections between ideas and enhances long-term retention. 

Interleaving: is a learning strategy where kids mix different topics together during a study session instead of focusing on one at a time.

3) How to Reduce Cognitive Load on Students During Lessons. Choose the activities/suggestions from each article that you think would be most effective with junior students.

Embed retrieval into your routines:

→ start classes by asking students what they learnt yesterday, or pause mid- lesson or at the end to ask what they remember from the last unit or how today's content connects to previous learning. 

Strategies:

→ turn and talk

→ drawing takeaways

Brain dumps: 

→10-20 minutes of instruction, followed by a pause and asking students to write everything they remember from memory. 

Why? 

→ Free recall strengthens memory by boosting retention, improving knowledge organization, and more. Seen as more effective than rereading or reviewing written notes. 

4) Other strategies

Environmental considerations

→ reduce unnecessary noise in class

→ avoid visual clutter

Rich Mayer’s principles of multimedia learning:

→ only provide information learners need (simple text/visual directly related)

→ use humor with caution (only add when amplifies the idea)

→ Verbal cues should be used to show what to look at, don't assume they know. 

→ reduce amount of text when possible - narration plus text to read creates too cognitive overload 

→ nurture each students sense of belonging

1) How to help students improve their working memory

Working memory: is your brain's "mental workspace" that temporarily stores and manipulates information for immediate use. It is essential for learning, problem solving and managing daily tasks. 

Ex)  Holding a phone number in your mind while dialing. 

Tips/tricks for Directions: 

→ Should be repeated to reinforce information: This helps retention, ability to hold, recall and process information.

→ Should be taught in sequential order: Supports working memory through activation of prior knowledge, and organizes the information in a logical sequence to better scaffold students' learning and retention of new knowledge. 

→ Should involve describing what's next: Descriptive narration is important in describing what is coming next in student’s learning so they can organize information and reduce cognitive load. 

→Should involve verbal and written instruction: creates externalized memory to reference which then relieves students of holding information within working memory

Tips/tricks for Routines: 

→ Should be consistent expectations, rules and routines : allow for students to know what is coming next, relieving mental effort and less working memory usage. 

→ Should involve making associations to events or common routines: this allows working memory to link new information with something already known by students

→ educators should encourage students to utilize their fingers to track progress, or next steps. Ex) a student could track the steps of a math solution assigning each of there fingers to steps that help them finish the problem.

→ Use visuals in lessons to support visual memory or dual coding. 

Dual coding: a learning strategy that combines verbal and visual information to improve memory and understanding. By presenting information through both words and images, the brain processes it through two separate channels, which creates parallel pathways to long-term memory and makes it easier to recall information later. 

Visual memory: the ability to retain and recall visual information, such as objects, faces, and events. It involves encoding, storing, and retrieving visual data, and can be broken down into two main types: short-term (holding an image briefly) and long-term (storing images over extended periods). 

Strategies for accessing or recalling: Learning

→ Acting out learning: using active hands-on activities that apply or demonstrate what has been learnt 

ex) role playing a book you’re reading in class

→ Teaching partners : Using time to allow students to teach each other in partners promotes confidence, recall and clarifies understanding of the information 

ex) Johnny and Mark partner up after learning about photosynthesis and teach each other. Johnny didn't understand some parts but Mark was able to clarify which supports Johnny’s knowledge and reinforces what Mark has learnt. 

→ Visualizations: Creating a mental image supports students ability to retrieve and retain information 

→ Chunking information and directions: Offers students a way to group meaningful information by lessening cognitive load and supporting their retrieval processes. Offers context clues to supporting memory, can support encoding and retrieval of information as multiple brain pathways are activate.This creates meaningful associations.

Chunking: a memory technique that involves breaking down large pieces of information into smaller, more manageable, and meaningful "chunks". This process helps to bypass the limits of working memory, making information easier to absorb, organize, and recall. 

Teaching effective working memory expansion:

→ repeat skill building throughout the semester. 

→ With each skill you should:

1. Explain the what, why and the how behind the concept and how it works neurologically

2. Link concept to what student wants in term of success

3. Scaffold students mastery of concept and related skills. 

2) Retrieval Activities that Help Learning Stick 

Four essential cognitive processes to support lasting learning:

1. Attention: what we focus on and notice 

2. Encoding: How we process and make sense of it

3. Storage: How we keep that information in our brains 

4. Retrieval: How we access and use stored information 

→ Retrieval plays the most crucial role in long term retention of learning. 

Retrieval strategies:

1. Read, Pause and Retrieve: Read a short text aloud to students, pause and have the students turn the page upside down and write down as much as they can remember. To deepen thought processes,  have students then compare, add details, clarify gaps or respond to a prompt such as “how does todays lesson connect to previous?”

Why?

→ Immediate retrieval after reading improves comprehension, reinforces encoding and helps students monitor their understanding 

Memory encoding: the brain's process of transforming sensory information into a form that can be stored and later retrieved as a memory.

Stages of memory formation: Encoding→ storage→retrieval 

2. No-quiz quick writes: Set a timer, have students “stop and jot” in response to a prompt or personal connection. Collect the writing and keep them in a portfolio after each unit to measure growth over time.

Why?

→ These low-stake writes foster relevance and creativity while tracking progress through word count or proficiency goals. 

→writing from memory strengthens retrieval pathways,deepens personal connection and supports metacognitive reflection 

Metacognitive reflection: the process of thinking about your own thinking to better understand and improve your learning. It involves planning your approach to a task, monitoring your progress as you work, and evaluating the outcome to guide future efforts.

3. Mini quizzes (connection and reflection activity): Pass out five questions: true/false, matching, images, or open ended. Students can discuss, pair, share, self-check or reflect silently.  

Why?

→ Retrieval improves retention, lowers anxiety and builds deeper comprehension. 

4. Stoplight reading (Interleave and retrieve): Have students engage with a text using the stoplight sstem for highlighting.

Red: I don't understand 

Yellow: I can't figure out based on context 

Green: Know well 

Why?

→ Visually helps students assess their understanding, while retrieval promotes active recall. 

→ combined with interleaving, it strengthens connections between ideas and enhances long-term retention. 

Interleaving: is a learning strategy where kids mix different topics together during a study session instead of focusing on one at a time.

3) How to Reduce Cognitive Load on Students During Lessons. Choose the activities/suggestions from each article that you think would be most effective with junior students.

Embed retrieval into your routines:

→ start classes by asking students what they learnt yesterday, or pause mid- lesson or at the end to ask what they remember from the last unit or how today's content connects to previous learning. 

Strategies:

→ turn and talk

→ drawing takeaways

Brain dumps: 

→10-20 minutes of instruction, followed by a pause and asking students to write everything they remember from memory. 

Why? 

→ Free recall strengthens memory by boosting retention, improving knowledge organization, and more. Seen as more effective than rereading or reviewing written notes. 

4) Other strategies

Environmental considerations

→ reduce unnecessary noise in class

→ avoid visual clutter

Rich Mayer’s principles of multimedia learning:

→ only provide information learners need (simple text/visual directly related)

→ use humor with caution (only add when amplifies the idea)

→ Verbal cues should be used to show what to look at, don't assume they know. 

→ reduce amount of text when possible - narration plus text to read creates too cognitive overload 

→ nurture each students sense of belonging

Learning happens through attention, encoding, storage, and retrieval in the brain - the cognitive process. Retrieval is the most important for long-term.

Forgetting things is okay, it’s protecting your brain from overload.

Retrieval Strategies:

1. Brain dump

2. Read, pause, retrieve

3. Jot notes

4. Quiz yourself

Working Memory

Memory is an executive function skill. The space where the brain decides whether or not to keep the information and where to put it.

Strategies to keep working memory:

- organizing your thoughts in order

- Describing the next steps

- Writing it down

- Following routines

- Using visual representations

- Teach someone else

- Put things into groups

Reducing Cognitive Load

1. Reduce anything that is ‘extra’ to help understanding

1. Make assignments clear(er)

2. Good work environment

3. Sense of belonging

2. Scaffolding

1. Visual options

2. Activities to practice learning

3. Tools such as cheat sheets or equation sheets in the begining

Title: Children with Executive Function Challenges

Aarushiya Puveendrakumaran

What is Executive Function?

In order for us to organize, remember and control our thoughts, our brains use powerful cognitive tools such as working memory, flexible thinking and self control. EF is the set of tools that direct goal-oriented behaviour in new situations. Students who have trouble with executive function find it more difficult to focus, follow instructions, stay organized, plan and control their wide emotions. In turn, it makes reading and learning more difficult.

Examples of When we Use EF:

-          To concentrate and pay attention

-          To plan and remember the steps that are needed in tasks

-          To think in a creative manner and problem solve

There are 3 skills that influence critical thinking skills which are working memory, cognitive flexibility and inhibitory control.

An example where a child needs to take turns with a ball, the child needs to be able to stop and let the other child take a turn (IC), and remember what they need to do (WM), and if the situation adapts from what was expected then to adjust what the child needs to do next (CF).

What causes Executive Function?

Its roots develop as small as in infants and toddlers. An important part of the brain for EF is the prefrontal cortex, and is involved in controlling behaviour through interactions with other parts of the brain.  Moreover, the research is still new and EF is related to oral language and vocabulary development.

What are the Effects of Executive Function?

According to Peng et al. (2022), there is a reciprocal relationship between the development of EF and language skills. So, students with language delays have EF deficits too. Also, it affects

a)      Attention and Concentration – EF enables focus, allowing children (and adults) to concentrate on tasks and ignore distractions.

b)     Planning and Organization – It helps in remembering steps, organizing materials, and sequencing tasks.

c)      Problem Solving and Creativity – EF fosters flexible, creative thinking when solving problems or adapting to change.

Misconceptions about Executive Function:

https://www.drbarbaracohen.com/blog/7-myths-of-executive-functioning

1.      Myth: Executive Functioning Issues Aren’t Real

2.      Myth: People Are Born with Executive Function Skills

3.      Myth: Only People with ADHD Have Weak EF

4.      Myth: You’ll Outgrow EF Problems Over Time

5.      ADHD Medication Fixes Executive Functioning

Signs & Symptoms of Executive Function:

-          Not Paying Attention

-          Deliberately Not Controlling Themselves

Some Classroom Strategies, Tips & Tools:

Before Reading

• Activate prior knowledge 

• Preview the text structure and features

• Ask students to make predictions

• Set a purpose for reading

During Reading

• Encourage students to ask questions 

• Encourage students to stop and “get the gist,” visualize, or annotate main ideas and details 

After Reading

• Go over main ideas

• Discuss the author’s purpose and perspective 

• Make connections to texts or experiences

• Discuss how you read AND what you rea    

Chunking

• Break down complex tasks into a set of smaller and manageable steps

• Use checklists, timers, calendars, or alarms to track progress and deadlines

Mnemonics

• Use pictures or acronyms to help children remember information. For example: ROY G BIV to remember the colors of the rainbow 

Scaffolding

• Use tools to support students’ thinking about the reading 

• Examples: graphic organizers, outlines, templates, or note-taking strategies

Feedback

• Give concrete feedback to identify strengths and areas for improvement

• Show students how to evaluate their own reading performance

• Have students practice or adjust based on feedback

• Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a developmental condition that affects how a child perceives and interacts with the world

•  Influences communication, social interactions, behaviour, and how a child responds to sensory input or changes in routine

•  It’s called a spectrum disorder because each child’s strengths and challenges vary widely.

• Children with ASD can learn and thrive when provided with the right support and understanding.

What causes Autism Spectrum Disorder?

• There is no single known cause of ASD

• Research suggests a combination of genetic, biological, and environmental factors contribute to early brain development differences

What are the effects of Autism Spectrum Disorder?

• Children with ASD may experience differences in how they communicate, learn, and build relationships

• They may have difficulty interpreting social cues, using or understanding language, and adapting to changes in routine

• Some may show repetitive behaviours or intense interests

• Many children also have strong memory skills, attention to detail, and excel in specific areas like math, art, or music

• Reading and comprehension can be challenging due to differences in language and social understanding

Misconceptions about Autism Spectrum Disorder

1. Autism is not caused by vaccines.

2. All children with autism do not have the same abilities or challenges — it is a spectrum.

3. Many people with autism can develop strong communication and social skills with support.

4. Autism does not mean a lack of intelligence; many children on the spectrum have above-average skills in certain areas.

Signs & Symptoms

• Limited eye contact or response to name.

• Difficulty understanding social cues or emotions.

• Repetitive movements or intense focus on specific topics.

• Resistance to changes in routine.

• Unusual reactions to sounds, textures, or lights.

• Differences in language development (delays or advanced vocabulary).

Some Classroom Strategies, Tips & Tools:

• Provide clear routines and prepare students for changes in schedule.

• Use visual supports (schedules, cues, story maps, anchor charts).

• Use peer partners for reading or group work to build social and academic skills.

• Incorporate students’ strengths and interests into lessons for engagement.

• Create a calm, sensory-friendly environment with predictable structure.

Source: https://www.readingrockets.org/helping-all-readers/neurodiversity-and-children-learning-differences/autism

Dyslexia is a language-based learning disability that affects reading, spelling, writing, and sometimes speaking. It is neurological in origin and results from a deficit in the phonological component of language. Students with dyslexia often have average or above-average intelligence but struggle with fluent word recognition and decoding, making it difficult to succeed in traditional classroom settings.

What Causes Dyslexia?

The exact causes are not completely understood, but research shows differences in brain development and function, particularly in areas that process language. Dyslexia often runs in families, suggesting a genetic link. It is not caused by low intelligence or lack of effort, and with structured and explicit teaching methods, students with dyslexia can learn successfully.

What Are the Effects of Dyslexia?

The effects vary depending on the individual and the support they receive. Common difficulties include challenges with word recognition, spelling, and reading fluency. Some students may later experience difficulties with grammar, essay writing, and oral expression. Beyond academics, dyslexia can affect confidence and motivation, often leading to frustration, stress, or anxiety when not properly supported.

Misconceptions About Dyslexia

Many people believe that individuals with dyslexia read backwards, but this is not true. Spelling errors may appear jumbled due to trouble remembering letter symbols and patterns, not because words are seen backwards. Dyslexia is not a disease and does not require a cure. It is also not related to intelligence or laziness. Many individuals with dyslexia are exceptionally bright and capable of great success when given appropriate support.

Signs & Symptoms of Dyslexia

• Difficulty learning letters, rhymes, or sequences such as days of the week

• Trouble recognizing or recalling words

• Challenges with spelling, reading fluency, and comprehension

• Difficulty following directions or organizing spoken and written language

• Possible co-occurrence with ADHD, though one does not cause the other
  
  

Some Classroom Strategies, Tips & Tools

Materials:

• Simplify or highlight written directions to make tasks clearer.

• Present smaller sections of work to prevent students from feeling overwhelmed.

• Provide glossaries, reading guides, and access to assistive technology such as audiobooks or text-to-speech tools.
  
  

Instruction:

• Use explicit, step-by-step teaching and multisensory learning approaches.

• Maintain predictable routines and incorporate visual supports.

• Provide graphic organizers and copies of notes to assist comprehension.

• Combine verbal information with visual aids to reinforce learning.
  
  

Performance:

• Allow extra time for reading, writing, and tests.

• Offer alternative ways to demonstrate understanding, such as oral responses or projects.

• Use peer support and provide consistent positive feedback to build confidence.

• Focus on effort, progress, and personal growth rather than just outcomes
  
  

Executive Function is defined by Reading Rockets as: “The umbrella term used to describe the set of cognitive skills used flexibly to direct goal-oriented behaviour in new or unfamiliar situations.” It is thought of as being made up of working memory, inhibitory control, and mental flexibility. 

What causes Executive Function?

Executive function is developed primarily in little children, and even in our infant and toddler years. The prefrontal cortex is very important for executive function. It improves a lot through our child and adolescent years, and it is not until early adulthood that it stops developing. It can also be trained. This means that children that struggle with executive function may have missed critical development opportunities, or simply have a tougher time developing such mental proficiencies. 

What are the effects of Executive Function?

The effects of executive function include our ability to perform particular tasks, form relationships, organize our schedules, to-do lists, etc., make proper decisions, wait our turn to talk, etc. Depending on our individual levels of executive function we will be able to perform such actions either better or with more difficulty than others. 

Misconceptions about Executive Function:

Some common misconceptions about executive function are: “Children who are struggling with these capacities often look like children who just aren’t paying attention, or children who are deliberately not controlling themselves.” (youtube video: Executive Functioning)

Signs & Symptoms of Executive Function: As listed by readingrockets.org, executive function is exhibited through our ability to: 

• Make plans

• Keep track of time

• Include past knowledge to present discussions in a meaningful way

• Participate meaningfully in groups

• Reflect on our work

• Assess our thought process and make corrections during situations

• Complete work on time

• Ask for help when needed

• Wait for their turn to talk

• Seek additional information as needed

Someone who struggles with executive function will likely exhibit difficulties with many if not all of these actions/abilities. 

Some Classroom Strategies, Tips & Tools:

It is extremely important that we set up our classrooms to be “executive function-friendly” all the time, not just through temporary actions. This is explained in the video “Setting up an ‘executive function-friendly’ classroom” by reading rockets. In this video it is explained that to do this, it is important that we do not treat every assignment like a test, and where we use students’ mistakes to help inform ourselves and the students as to what they need to learn next. As executive functions are skills that we develop, it is important that we help students develop these skills, rather than assuming that they simply do not and cannot possess them. Some specific tools and strategies include: 

• Chunking: “Break down complex tasks into a set of smaller and manageable steps.” This should also be coupled with the use of checklists, timers, calendars, visual schedules, etc. 

• Mnemonics: “Use pictures of acronyms to help children remember information.” 

• Scaffolding: Use tools to support students’ thinking, including aids like graphic organizers, outlines, templates, etc. 

• Feedback: It is important to give students concrete feedback to identify student’s strengths and areas for improvement. It is also important to teach students how to evaluate their performances. 

• Create a tool box of working memory strategies on how to increase it 

Directions

1. Repeating instructions

2. Identifying what you know in a sequential order (activate prior knowledge)

3. Describing what’s next (verbal rehearsal)

4. Writing information down

Routines

1. Making associations 

2. Consistent rules and routines

3. Using fingers to ID steps

4. Using visuals

Accessing learning in your memory

1. Acting out learning 

2. Teaching a partner

3. Visualization

4. Grouping information 

Practice these strategies with your students and always explain the what, why, and how these neurological strategies work so they are informed. Link it to the students own success criterias.

2) Retrieval Activities that Help Learning Stick

The four essential cognitive processes support lasting learning:  

• Attention. What we focus on and notice. 

• Encoding. How we process and make sense of it. 

• Storage. How we keep that information in our brains. 

• Retrieval. How we access and use stored information when we need it.

Forgetting is not a flaw, it's the way the brain protects itself from overload. Readership shows that we lose more than half of new learning within an hour and nearly two-thirds within 24 hours, unless we interrupt that decline through deliberate retrieval.

Strategies: 

• brain dump (boosting retention)

• Read, pause, retrieve (improves comprehension)

• Quic writes 

• Mini quizzes for connection and reflection 

• Stoplight reading with highlighters (visual assuming of their understanding)

• Brerath, retreated, reflect (1: nailed it, 2: got it, 3: forgot , students holds up a number after the teaching name a concept/word) (normalize forgetting)

• Embedded retrieval in your routine 

3) How to Reduce Cognitive Load on Students During Lessons. 

Our active working memory only holds three to five items for 10 to 20 seconds before it gets stored or forgotten.

• If cognitive load on students is too high, learning is hard

• It will result in a student being able to perform a task in class but not later

• If it’s not stored in long-term memory, they didn’t learn it.

1. Reduce extraneous cognitive load

• Give better assignments: number steps, make sure all students have easy access to resources…

• Present information more effectively: Rich Mayer’s principles of multimedia learning for slides, only give the student the information they need, simple text, use humour with caution, give verbal cues on heat we should focus on.

• Nurture a sense of belonging: their active memory for most of them may be used for things other then class, we can make connections, it’s important for teaching to understand their students.

2. Use scaffolds to reduce demands on working memory

• Write your thinking, a visual reminder to offload some information from their working memory.

• Students can have a temporary help cheat until the information is stored in their long term memory.

• Have short activities so kids ca awaken their prior knowledge and experiences to this new information