Manegment:
Volcanic observatory built to monitor the volcano
2/3 of island still inhabitable and new infrastructure was built in the safe areas, Montserrat is still rebuilding tits tourism industry today

Recovery:
By 2015 $13billion had been donated from international organisations, however progress was slow and 80,000 Haitians still in temporary housing, cholera ongoing problem.

- 97% of 29,000 reconstruction projects started
- 99% of 196,000 destroyed farmhouses rebuilt
- 216 transport projects under construction or completed 
+ China did not like to accept help from other countries so took longer to allow international rescue teams in

Response:
The government immediately responded:
- 110,000 defence troops mobilised within 24 hours
- all radio and tv stations instantly switched to earthquake coverage 
- banks able to keep operating as Bank if Japan offered $183 billion so economy protected
- Japan accepted help from over 20 countries 

- 7107 islands 
- 25% bigger than the UK
- 101 million population in 2015
- middle income country
- mountainous with coastal lowlands 

Considered one of the most disaster prone countries in the world:

VULNERABILITY
- quickly developing, fast growing population led to rapid urbanisation and high population density
- many of the poor live in coastal areas where flooding and tsunami damage the poorly constructed housing and infrastructure
- 25% live in poverty

challenges:
- one hazard event can cause another
— earthquake in 2006; killed 15, injured 100, damaged 800 buildings; 3m high tsunami; triggered landslides which created a flood
- different hazards can happen in a short space of time
— 2013; earthquake in October killed 223; Typhoon Haiyan in November killed 6201; floods from a tropical depression in January killed 64
The government is left with drained resources and in a near constant state of emergency

Short term aid

consequences for the environment
- Canada’s tar sands are found in deposits in ecologically fragile and isolated areas such as peat bogs and native taiga
- large scale open cast mining destroys forest and peat bogs causing a loss of ecosystems and habitats, resilience of native environments decrease 
- extraction creates spoil heaps - dumps for waste soil and sand
- tailings (waste material) ponds are created, containing contaminated waste water caused by oil extraction and processing
- Caribou populations have declined sharply in areas of oil extraction and are expected to be extinct by 2040

A study of the 2010 Amazon drought showed that trees died and growth rates declined. The drought effectively shut down the Amazon's function as a carbon sink.

Forest fires broke out - burning trees and litter and releasing CO2. There are further concerns that, as climate change increases temperatures and alters rainfall patterns across South America, the Amazon rainforest will change from a carbon sink to a carbon source.

This could accelerate global warming.

The drought’s impacts led to street protests in São Paulo and included:

Mismanaged rivers
Hard engineering schemes are common in Cumbria, for example raised riverbanks, pumping stations and diversion channels carry surplus water away from built up areas.
The design of these is based on the flood-return period which is a statistical estimate of how often a flood of a certain magnitude is likely to occur based on past flood levels.
These were reinforced in Cumbria after the 2005 floods but climate change and further changes in land use mean we will face more extreme storms and flooding so smaller scale flood protection schemes may be overwhelmed.

Longer term impacts
The scale of the flooding caught people unawares and the economic disruption was significant. Increased flooding in the UK is forcing key players to weigh up the costs and benefits of staying where they are and also challenges communities to re-assess the flood threat in their area.

SOCIAL costs

For example, Burkina Faso’s farmers build stone lines or dig improved planting pits to trap the limited rainfall on fields and increase yields.

If forecasts of mega droughts are true, ‘business as usual’ will not be possible in terms of meeting future water demands and already there is evidence of problems:

A plan for the MDB
The basin includes 23 major river systems and since 1901 there have been agreements, policies and plans in place to use the MDB’s waters fairly and responsibly. In 2012 a new basin plan came into effect which aimed to balance access to water for communities in the basin and the provision of adequate water for the environment.
The plan determines the amount of water that can be extracted for consumption, both by the user and by state and federal governments so that there isn’t a negative impact on the natural environment and functions of the rivers, groundwater and wetlands of the basin.
However not everyone is happy about the plan, farmers and rural communities claim that too much water has been taken back for the river and its environment.

Irsrael also acquires new supplies by:

 New agreements
A combination of climate change, population growth, economic development and lifestyle changes has made the old Colorado agreements obsolete so:

The best example of a Dalmatian coastline is the one that gives this feature its name - the Dalmatian coast in Croatia. 
Dalmatian coasts are also known as Pacific coasts for example in southern Chile.

Haff coasts also consist of concordant features - long spits of sand and lagoons - aligned parallel to the coast.

These are named after the Haffs, or lagoons, of the southern shore of the Baltic Sea, which are enclosed by sand spits or dunes.

The way in which systems attempt to balance in this way is called dynamic eauilibrium.

Each major sediment cell can be divided up into a number of sub-cells. One of these lies in Christchurch Bay. Within this sub-cell, the processes of erosion, transport and deposition are all interlinked. Areas of deposition, like Dolphin Bank, firm potential sources of sediment, as well as sinks.

Why are sea levels rising?
Global warming. Average global temperatures rose by 0.85*C from 1880 to 2012. During a similar time period, 1870-2010, average sea levels rose by 21cm.
Sea levels are rising because the polar ice sheets as well as glaciers are melting, and due to thermal expansion.
No one knows exactly how far sea levels will rise. Climate scientists estimate that by 2100, average sea levels will have risen by around 40cm. And that means low lying nations, like Kiribati or the Maldives are at risk of disappearing beneath the waves.

Human actions
The actions that people and organisations (players) take can impact on coastal retreat - the outcome isn’t always positive. Central government agencies such as the environmental agency are usually responsible for coastal management alongside local authorities and they must work according to stakeholders in the local economy such as tourists, farmers and residents. They might want certain areas protected in order to maintain value of farmland, protect their homes, campsites and other businesses. However insurance companies are increasingly refusing to insure vulnerable properties. Also environmental stakeholders want to protect Spurn Head, so a continuing flow of sand southwards by long shore drift is essential. This is because it protects the mudflats of Humber Estuary which is an important birdlime reserve.

Impacts of coastal management
Higher rates of erosion often occur immediately to the South of coastal defences along the Holderness coast. For example the sea wall, groynes and rock armour at Hornsea protect part of the coast but also interrupt the flow of beach material by long shore drift. The beach downdrift of Hornsea at Mappleton is then starved of beach material and it’s cliffs are exposed to wave attack. This is known as terminal groyne syndrome and it affects many UK coasts.

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL LOSSES
Golden Sands Holiday park, south of Withernsea has lost 100 chalets to the sea in just 15 years.
Withernsea isn’t alone in suffering economic losses due to coastal erosion. It is predicted that 200 homes and several roads will fall into the sea between Flamborough Head and Spurn Point by 2100. Nationally, the environment agency suggests that 7000 homes will disappear due to coastal erosion by the same date.
Individuals lose out both socially and financially as a result of coastal erosion and very little financial help is available to them. No compensation is paid out for the loss of private property or land caused by erosion in England.
Between 2010 and 2012 the East Riding of Yorkshire Council used £1.2 million of direct money from Defra to trial different ways of helping people adapt to living on an eroding coastline. They gave some financial assistance to 36 households along the coast, supported 16 locations and 43 property demolitions. The remainder of the money was used to help residents through relocation and adaptation packages.

Almost every year, huge areas of the country flood as Himalayan snowmelt adds to monsoon rains and high tides in the Bay of Bengal. Coastal flooding is a major problem - between March and May, violent thunderstorms produce strong southerly winds of 160 km per hour, which bring in six-metre-high waves from the Bay of Bengal to swamp coastal areas.

Storm surges

Storm surges causing devastating results are common in the Bay of Bengal.

Storm surges are changes in sea level caused by intense low-pressure systems - depressions and tropical cyclones - and high wind speeds. For every drop in air pressure of 10 mb, the sea level rises by 10 cm. During tropical cyclones, the air pressure may be 100 mb lower than normal, which will raise the sea level by I metre. This rise in sea level is intensified in areas where the coastline is funnel-shaped. During high tides and in low-lying areas - such as much of Bangladesh - the results can be deadly.

CYCLONE SIDR
Cyclone Sidr brought heavy rain with it, as well as strong winds of up to 223 km/hr and a huge storm surge reaching up to 6 metres in height. It was a category 4 storm.

the coastal districts and offshore islands suffered the highest number of deaths and the worst effects. The situation in coastal districts like Barguna was described as the worst in decades, which is saying something given that Bangladesh is used to dealing with major floods and storms every year.

The total cost of Cyclone Sid to Bangladesh was estimated to be US$I.7 billion. Most of the destruction and social and environmental losses were caused by the severity of the cyclone; the failure of the extensive embankment system; and the consequent flooding of many villages. But the casualties were lower than expected, because of improved disaster-prevention measures (including an improved forecasting and warning system and the use of cyclone shelters).

Increasing the flood risk
There is not much Bangladesh can do about the physical factors which make it prone to flooding, such as its height above sea level or the large number of major rivers passing through the country on their way to the sea. However human actions are increasing the risk of coastal flooding.

In attempt to manage some of these problems, an integrated coastal zone management project has been implemented with the aim of managing the coast and its resources in a sustainable way.
In Odisha, there are many key players who have an interested in managing the coast and these have consulted with others who have a stake in its future:

Central government 

Stakeholders in the local economy 

In addition to the inter-organisational consultations, a wide range of public consultations have also been held, including with individual villages about issue including:

Greenpeace India has also been involved in meetings about income generation and the management of marine resources, acting with some of the villages include in the ICZM project.

Managing future threats
The Mahanadi Delta in Odisha is prone to cyclone disasters, and the loss of mangroves is part of the story. 50 years ago, coastal villages in Odisha had an average width of 5.1km of mangroves protecting them. Today, that figure is an average of 1.2km. In 1999 during ‘super cyclone’ Kalina, villages that still had 4 or more km of mangroves recorded no deaths. However in area where the protective belt was less than 3km wide, death rates rose sharply.
The NGO Wetlands International, the Indian Government and Odishas ICZM project are trying to reverse decades of mangrove destruction. They are helping villagers to plant mangroves along the coast, and also on the banks of all tidal rivers along Odisha’s coast.

The ICZM was used to develop the Flamborough head to Gibraltar Point (northern and southern limits of a major sediment cell on England’s east coast) Shoreline Management Plan SMP and to deliver the East Riding Coastal Change Pathfinder 2010-2012.

What is the SMP?
It sets out the policy for managing the coastline and responding to coastal erosion over the next 100 years. It assesses potential erosion and flood risks and identifies sustainable coastal defence and management options which take into account the influences and needs of the human, natural and historic environments (including existing defences and adjacent coastal areas).
The East Riding of Yorkshire council worked with a number of players and stakeholders in developing the SMP including

What’s the plan for Holderness?
CBA and EIA
In order to make a decision about where to protect, a CBA and an Environmental Impact Assessment are carried out. For each area along the coastline, the economic assessment identified whether:

The CBA concluded that:

An EIA decides whether environmental quality will improve or worsen as a result of the different options for managing the coast. The decision under the SMP is to 'hold the line' for current defences at Dimlington and Easington gas terminals. An ElA for coastal protection works recommended the current protection scheme of a rock revetment made up of large granite boulders and 1km long.

Decisions about whether to defend the coast or not are complex judgements, based on a range of factors - not just a CBA and EIA.
Over the next few decades, countries face difficult decisions about the best way to manage the coast. In the UK: farmland and isolated houses are likely to remain unprotected; residents, councils and businesses often disagree about the best approach; conflicts arise when coastal defences in one place have a negative impact elsewhere along the coast - and where there are delays in the implementation of coastal protection. Where different players are involved there will always be winners and losers, decisions are made about how to manage issues so some people are bound to come out on top while others lose out.