History Chapter 9 Dickey by Erich E Dickey

The Earlier 20th Century (1900s - 1950s)

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At the turn of the 20th century, Italian and Jewish immigrants were mostly placed in English-medium mainstream schools. In the first two decades of the 20th century, a change in attitude to bilingualism and bilingual education occurred in the United States. A variety of factors are linked to this change and a subsequent restriction of bilingual education. Some factors include:

1) The number of immigrants increased drastically around this time, which gave rise to fear of new foreigners and a call for the assimilation of immigrants.

2) In 1919, the Americanization Department of the United States Bureau of Education recommended that all educational institutions across the country conduct their education in the English language.

3) In 1917 during World War I, Anti-German feelings spread in the United States, with a consequent extra pressure for English monolingualism and an assimilationist policy achieved through monolingual education (Baker & Wright, 2021).

This period is crucial for understanding the challenges faced by bilingual education, as it highlights the reasons behind the negative perceptions that emerged when such programs should have been embraced and allowed to thrive. As future ENL educators, we must learn from these past mistakes to ensure they are not repeated in the future.

The Later 20th Century (1957)

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In 1957, the Russians launched their Sputnik satellite into space. For US politicians and the public, a period of soul-searching led to debates about the quality of education, including the overriding concern with English as the melting pot language. A new consciousness was aroused about the need for foreign language instruction. In 1958, the National Defense Education Act was passed, promoting foreign language learning in educational institutions. In the 1960s, various other factors allowed a few opportunities to bring back bilingual education. The restoration of bilingual education in the United States is often regarded as starting in 1963, in one school in Florida. Coral Way Elementary School, in Dade County in South Florida, was established as the first modern dual language school by Cuban exiles. At this school, the educated, middle-class Cubans set up this Spanish-English bilingual school to maintain their mother tongue of Spanish. Although this was an important step in the right direction for bilingual education, there was much-needed legislation and lawsuits in order for the United States to fully grasp the benefits (Baker & Wright, 2021).

This period is pivotal for understanding contemporary bilingual education, as it marks significant progress in shifting national attitudes throughout the 20th century. However, this was just the beginning of a much larger journey. There is still a wealth of history to explore that forms the foundation of the bilingual education system we have today.

Title VII Bilingual Education Act (1968)

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The Title VII Bilingual Education Act, enacted in 1968 as part of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, aimed to support and promote bilingual education programs in the United States. It was designed to address the educational needs of students with limited English proficiency (LEP)— a term that is considered unjust and imprecise— by providing federal funding for schools to develop and implement bilingual education initiatives (Baker & Wright, 2021).

This is an important part of bilingual history as this act has undergone numerous revisions and has played a crucial role in shaping bilingual education policies and practices in the U.S. However, this was not always the case. It took several decades for the act to effectively benefit all multilingual (ML) students. Initially, some provisions prioritized "transitional bilingual education," which focused on transitioning non-native English speakers to full English proficiency, often at the expense of maintaining their home languages. In contrast, dual-language programs emphasize the success and use of both the students' native languages and English, promoting a more inclusive and supportive approach to bilingual education.

No Child Left Behind (2001)

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The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), enacted in 2002, aimed to improve educational outcomes, with a strong focus on standardized testing and accountability. In terms of bilingual education, NCLB placed significant emphasis on English proficiency for English Language Learners (ELLs). Schools were required to test ELL students annually in reading and math, and their progress in English was a key part of school accountability. The law encouraged English immersion programs over bilingual education, pushing for faster integration into English-only instruction. Schools that failed to demonstrate adequate progress in helping ELLs achieve English proficiency faced penalties, which led many to reduce bilingual programs in favor of English-only approaches. This shift was controversial, as some argued it sidelined students' native languages and cultures (Baker & Wright, 2021).

The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) plays a significant role in the history of bilingual education because, while its goal was to support English Language Learners (ELLs) by prioritizing English proficiency, it faced criticism for its emphasis on standardized testing and English-only immersion. This approach often led to the reduction of bilingual education programs, which diminished the support for students' native languages and overlooked the cognitive and academic benefits of bilingualism. Additionally, the law's rigid accountability standards left schools with limited flexibility to adopt more tailored, culturally responsive bilingual education models.

Every Student Succeeds Act (2015)

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The Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), passed in 2015, replaced No Child Left Behind and gave states more control over how they handle education, especially for English Language Learners (ELLs). ESSA still focuses on helping ELL students improve their English skills, but it allows states to choose how they provide language instruction. Unlike NCLB, which pushed for English-only immersion and heavy testing, ESSA encourages schools to use different approaches, including bilingual education and dual-language programs. While ELL progress is still important for school accountability, the law focuses more on supporting students and improving programs, rather than punishing schools. This gives schools more flexibility to create programs that meet the unique needs of ELL students, recognizing the benefits of being bilingual while ensuring they also learn English (Baker & Wright, 2021).

The Every Student Succeeds Act is an important turning point in the history of bilingual education because it encourages more flexibility and supports different teaching methods that meet the needs of all students. By recognizing the value of being bilingual, ESSA aims to create a fairer education system where all students, especially English Language Learners (ELLs), can succeed in their studies. This law helps create an environment that focuses on academic success while also respecting and preserving students' cultural and language backgrounds, allowing them to thrive in a multilingual society.