The conditioning theories explain learning as a process of association between stimuli and responses. Classical conditioning, proposed by Ivan Pavlov, is based on the creation of conditioned reflexes through repeated exposure to stimuli. Meanwhile, operant conditioning, developed by B. F. Skinner, holds that learning occurs through the use of positive or negative reinforcements (rewards or punishments) that strengthen or weaken behavior.

Psychology originated as a branch of philosophy, but by the late 19th century it evolved into an experimental science through Wilhelm Wundt, who founded the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig (1879). This new, positivist psychology studied mental processes through observation and experimentation.
Later, new approaches emerged, such as Gestalt Psychology, founded by Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Köhler, which argued that learning and perception are holistic processes, not mere sums of parts. According to Gestalt theory, people perceive and understand wholes before elements, so teaching should focus on complete, meaningful structures.
From this idea arises the principle of globalisation, which emphasizes integrated learning, connecting different subjects, as applied by Decroly with his centres of interest, where children learn through global topics linked to their environment and experiences.

E. L. Thorndike’s theory states that learning happens by forming connections between stimuli and responses (S-R). Learning occurs through trial and error, strengthening behaviors that lead to success. He proposed three laws: readiness (being prepared aids learning), exercise (practice strengthens connections), and effect (satisfying responses are repeated).

1. Sensorio-motora (0-2 años): aprendizaje a través de los sentidos y la acción.

2. Preoperacional (2-7 años): uso del lenguaje y del pensamiento simbólico.

3. Operaciones concretas (7-11 años): pensamiento lógico aplicado a objetos concretos.

4. Operaciones formales (11 años en adelante): pensamiento abstracto y razonamiento hipotético.

Piaget defendió una educación activa, donde el niño aprende investigando, experimentando y resolviendo problemas. Creía que el maestro debía guiar el aprendizaje, no imponerlo, promoviendo la curiosidad, la cooperación y la autonomía del estudiante. Sus ideas influyeron profundamente en la pedagogía moderna, impulsando métodos centrados en la actividad, la observación, la experimentación y la construcción personal del conocimiento.

Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, developed a learning theory focused on how children progressively build intelligence through two processes: assimilation (integrating new information into existing knowledge) and accommodation (adapting knowledge to new experiences). He proposed that cognitive development occurs in four main stages:

1. Sensorimotor (0–2 years): learning through senses and physical action.

2. Preoperational (2–7 years): use of language and symbolic thought.

3. Concrete operations (7–11 years): logical thinking applied to concrete objects.

4. Formal operations (11 years and older): abstract thinking and hypothetical reasoning.

Piaget advocated for active learning, where children learn by exploring, experimenting, and solving problems. He believed that teachers should guide rather than impose learning, encouraging curiosity, cooperation, and autonomy. His ideas deeply influenced modern pedagogy, emphasizing activity-based, observational, and experimental learning that allows students to construct their own understanding.

David Ausubel’s meaningful learning theory seeks to explain how learning occurs, its limits, and why knowledge is forgotten. He proposes that learning happens when new information is substantially and non-arbitrarily related to a learner’s prior knowledge, known as inclusive concepts. For meaningful learning to take place, the material must be potentially meaningful, and the learner must be willing to learn.
Ausubel differentiates between meaningful learning and rote learning: the former transforms and enriches cognitive structures, while the latter relies on simple memorization.
He identifies three types of meaningful learning:
a) Representational learning, when symbols or words acquire meaning.
b) Concept learning, when common features of objects or events are understood.
c) Propositional learning, when the meaning of ideas expressed through statements is grasped.
In essence, meaningful learning occurs when new information integrates with and modifies the learner’s cognitive structure, resulting in deeper and more lasting understanding.

1. Enactiva (acción): aprender haciendo.

2. Icónica (imágenes mentales): aprender mediante la representación visual.

3. Simbólica (lenguaje): aprender a través de símbolos y palabras.
   El objetivo educativo, según Bruner, es facilitar que el alumno descubra el conocimiento por sí mismo, desarrollando su pensamiento lógico y creativo. Además, la escuela tiene la función social de transmitir valores culturales que permitan la integración del individuo en la sociedad y su transformación positiva.

   
   

Jerome S. Bruner, an American psychologist, was one of the main theorists of cognitive learning. He believed that human development and learning result from the interaction between the individual, school, culture, and society. Education, according to Bruner, should focus on developing students’ cognitive abilities through discovery, motivation, and active participation.
He proposed that learning occurs through personal construction processes when the environment provides the right conditions. Bruner identified three modes of knowledge representation:

1. Enactive (action-based): learning by doing.

2. Iconic (image-based): learning through mental or visual representations.

3. Symbolic (language-based): learning through symbols and words.
   The goal of education, for Bruner, is to help learners discover knowledge on their own, fostering logical and creative thinking. Furthermore, the school plays a social role by transmitting cultural values that enable individuals to integrate into and positively transform society.

Lev S. Vygotsky argued that learning and human development cannot be understood apart from their social and cultural context. He rejected theories that view learning merely as associations between stimuli and responses, emphasizing that knowledge is constructed through social interaction and mediated by language and symbols.
According to Vygotsky, higher psychological functions first appear on a social level and are later internalized by the individual. He formulated the general genetic law of cultural development, stating that every mental function appears twice: first between people and then within the person.
He introduced the concept of mediation, where tools (physical objects) and signs (language, writing, symbolic systems) help transform both reality and thought.
Another key concept is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which represents the gap between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with expert guidance. For Vygotsky, guided learning within this zone drives cognitive growth.
His theory emphasizes the importance of cultural environment, semiotic mediation, and social cooperation as essential forces in learning.