Coal is extracted from the Earth either through surface mining or underground mining.

• When coal is less than 200 ft underground, surface mining is utilized. In surface mining, large machines remove the topsoil and overburden in order to expose the coal seams; mountaintop removal is another form of surface mining, in which the tops of mountains are removed to access the coal seams.

• Underground mining is used when coal is more than 200 ft underground. To access these mines, miners ride elevators underground and utilize large machines in order to remove the coal.

After extracting the coal, it is processed through crushing, screening, and beneficiation. Crushing is a process in which the coal is crushed in a chain conveyor that breaks the biggest lumps; the size is further reduced through a sizer. Screening is a process in which coal is separated into coarse coal and fine coal. Then comes benefaction, a process in which coal has impurities, ash, and sulfur removed.

Some examples include:

• Pencil Leads

• Steel

• Toothpastes, Face masks, and Exfoliants

• Paint thinner

• Insecticides

• Fungicides

• Batteries

• Iron

  
  

The traditional method of vertical drilling involves drilling a well straight into the gas reservoir. This simple method works well for traditional reservoirs. Directional drilling is used when a reservoir is difficult to access or when a bigger area needs to be explored from a single point. By drilling at an angle, this technique enables the wellbore to enter various portions of the reservoir.

Unconventional Methods: 

One prominent technique for obtaining natural gas from shale deposits is hydraulic fracturing, or "fracking." In order to facilitate the escape of trapped gas, a high-pressure fluid mixture is injected into the reservoir to cause cracks. By draining the coal of its water content, coal bed methane (CBM) extraction aims to release methane that has been trapped in coal seams. Hydraulic fracturing is used in tight gas extraction to increase low-permeability rock formations' permeability.

Enhanced Recovery Techniques: 

Secondary recovery techniques, such as water flooding or gas injection (using carbon dioxide or nitrogen), are used in mature fields where natural pressure has decreased in order to force the residual gas into production wells. With the goal to recover more gas from depleted reservoirs, tertiary recovery—also referred to as enhanced oil recovery or EOR—involves sophisticated methods like chemical injection or carbon capture and storage (CCS).

Offshore Extractions: 

Subsea wells are frequently used to retrieve natural gas from offshore locations. Pipelines are used to carry the gas from these wells, which are submerged, to the surface. This offshore extraction technique is essential for effectively accessing submerged gas sources.

Biomass comes from both human and natural activities. By-products from most industries, including timber, agriculture, naturally occurring forest residues, household wastes and landfills, are all viable sources of biomass energy materials.

Electricity:

• Natural gas is a significant source of electricity generation.

Heat and Cooking:

• In residential, commercial, and industrial settings, natural gas is commonly used for heating buildings and water.

Fertilizers:

• Natural gas is a key ingredient in the production of ammonia, a primary component of fertilizers.

Plastics:

• Ethylene and propylene, building blocks for plastics, are produced from natural gas through a process called steam cracking.

Chemicals and Petrochemicals:

• Natural gas serves as a feedstock for the production of various chemicals and petrochemicals.

Liquid Fuels:

• Natural gas can be converted into liquid fuels through processes like gas-to-liquids (GTL) technology.

Hydrogen Production:

• Hydrogen can be produced from natural gas through a process called steam methane reforming (SMR).

Asphalt and Road Materials:

• Natural gas byproducts, such as bitumen and asphalt, are used in the production of road materials.

• Air pollution: Most of the air pollution we as people are exposed to comes from cars and trucks, which release nitrogen oxides and smog-forming emissions. The health risks of air pollution are a serious matter in the world. since it can produce asthma, and bronchitis, and even heighten the risk of life-threatening conditions like lung cancer.
  

• Climate change: Weather events such as hurricanes and wildfires are directly linked to fossil fuels that release heat-trapping gasses into the atmosphere. Almost one-quarter of the emissions of greenhouse gasses in the United States come from the extraction of fossil fuels on public lands.
  

• Drilling and fracking: The process of turning oil into fuel is complex. Oil is extracted by drilling, fracking, or mining, most of the time drilling is a cause of oil spills and accidents. Drilling also disrupts wildlife habitats, disrupting the animal’s life cycles like breeding and nesting, it has also been proven that oil spills can be deadly to these animals and most notably be the cause of long-lasting damage to marine ecosystems. Fracking, on the other hand, is linked with toxic water, methane leaks, and earthquakes. When extracted, crude oil is transported through pipelines, trucks, and tankers into processing facilities to be refined. Oil spills during transportation are very common and difficult to clean.

Petrochemicals: Plastics, Synthetic rubber, Nylon and Polyester

Chemicals: Solvents, Fertilizers, Detergents and Pesticides

Asphalt: Used in road construction and maintenance

Waxes: Candle wax and Polishes

Currently, the majority of oil is produced in the Middle East, where 56% of oil reserves have resided for the last 3 decades. In fact, 52,970 TWH per hour of oil is used. Then it is followed by:

The United States: a substantial share of global production due to the growth in shale oil production.

Saudi Arabia: this country has traditionally been one of the world's leading oil producers and has considerable reserves.

Russia: has more significant reserves and production capacity.

Canada: possesses large oil sands reserves, making it a significant contributor to global oil production.  

China: being a major consumer of oil, though the production levels are not as high as its consumption, it’s reliant on imports.

Shale oil: 

Oil is bound up tightly in impermeable rock, it is considered tight oil and requires hydraulic machinery to be extracted.

Oil sand (Tar): 

Also known as tar sands, and are made of water, clay, sand, and a type of petroleum; called bitumen and its deposits are below the surface.

Where is it found 

Normally found in underground reservoirs where the past ancient seas were once located, but mostly it is just beneath the land or in the ocean below the seabed

Natural gas is extracted from subsurface rock formations via drilling. Advances in hydraulic fracturing technologies have enabled access to large volumes of natural has from shale. 

Recent estimates show that most of the world’s natural gas reserves are located in the Middle East, Europe, and Russia, with these making up nearly 75 percent of total worldwide reserves. And out of those, Russia has the largest proved natural gas reserves in the world. As of 2022, it held reserves worth 47.8 trillion standard cupid meters worth of fossil fuel. 

Top 5 reservoirs: 

1. Russia 24.3%

2. Iran 17.3% 

3. Qatar 12.5% 

4. United States 5.3% 

5. Saudi Arabia 4.2% 

During the Carboniferous period, between 358.9 and 298.9 million years ago, terrestrial plants that are essential for coal formation started to proliferate. Large sedimentary basins on every continent, including Antarctica, are known to contain rocks that date from the Carboniferous and younger ages. Because of tectonic action caused by the old continental masses above the earth's surface, as well as climatic fluctuations, regions with arctic climates, this is why Alaska and Siberia can be included, have abundant coal resources. Because the rocks in these regions date back before the Carboniferous period.

Globally, China is the greatest producer of coal, producing 52% of the coal production in the world in 2022. The second largest producer is India, with an 8.6%, the Indonesia with an 8%, United States with a 6.9% and Australia 6.6%. But why in these countries specifically? It’s because they count with certain environmental conditions that allow this to happen. 

GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION AND CHARACTERISTICS:

United States: The U.S. has diverse geological regions that were conducive to coal formation. For instance, the Appalachian region was a vast swampy area in the distant past, with abundant vegetation. Over millions of years, this vegetation was buried and transformed into coal. Similarly, the Illinois Basin and the Powder River Basin in the Rocky Mountains also have rich coal deposits due to similar geological processes.

China: China's coal reserves, especially in the northern regions, are a result of ancient forests that existed in these areas millions of years ago. Over time, these forests were buried under sediment and underwent the coalification process. China's diverse geological history has resulted in a variety of coal types, including both hard and soft coal.

Australia: Australia has coal reserves primarily due to its geological history that includes periods of lush vegetation and muddy conditions, particularly in the eastern regions. The Gondwana period is particularly significant for coal formation in Australia.

Russia: Russia's vast landmass, particularly in Siberia, contains extensive sedimentary basins where coal could form. The region's geological history includes periods with abundant plant life, which over time transformed into coal deposits. Siberia's remote and harsh climate has also meant that many of these reserves are less disturbed.

To clear areas for extraction trees are cut down or burned, plants uprooted and the topsoil scraped away, resulting in deforestation and soil erosion. Furthermore, this leads to a loss of habitat since species have their resources forcibly removed. And, it causes acid mine drainage, since heavy metals that are extracted end up dissolving in group and surface water.

1. Harvesting: Collecting plants or crops at the right stage of growth.

2. Thermochemical Processes:

- Combustion for direct burning.

- Gasification for syngas production.

- Pyrolysis for biochar, bio-oil, and syngas.

3. Biochemical Processes:

- Fermentation for converting sugars to biofuels.

- Anaerobic Digestion for biogas production.

4. Mechanical Processes:

- Pressing for oilseed crops.

- Milling for size reduction.

5. Extraction of Oils and Chemicals:

- Solvent extraction for oils and chemicals.

- Supercritical Fluid Extraction for specific compounds.

6. Hydrothermal Processes: Treating biomass with hot pressurized water for breakdown and compound extraction.

7. Enzymatic Processes: Using enzymes to break down biomass components.

The choice depends on biomass type, desired products, and sustainability factors.