Several factors contributed to the depression, including overproduction, declining agricultural prices, and uneven wealth distribution. The crash led to a sharp decline in consumer spending and investment, causing industrial output to plummet. Bank failures wiped out savings, further reducing consumer spending and investment.

Internationally, the depression spread through global trade and finance. Countries responded with protectionist policies, like the U.S. Smoot-Hawley Tariff, worsening the crisis by reducing international trade. Many nations experienced high unemployment, deflation, and political instability.

Governments initially struggled to respond effectively. In the U.S., President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal introduced programs to provide relief, recovery, and reform, such as Social Security, banking regulations, and public works projects. While the New Deal helped mitigate some effects, it was the increased industrial production spurred by World War II that ultimately ended the Great Depression, revitalizing economies and reducing unemployment.

During the Gilded Age, the wealth gap widened, and workers faced poor conditions, leading to strikes and the rise of labor unions. Political corruption was rampant, with practices like patronage and the influence of big business over politics. The government was largely laissez-faire, allowing monopolies to thrive without regulation.

The Progressive Era emerged as a response to these issues, with reformers seeking to address the social and economic injustices of the Gilded Age. Progressives pushed for reforms such as antitrust laws to break up monopolies, labor laws to protect workers, and social policies to improve living conditions. Key figures like Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson advocated for regulatory measures, including the Pure Food and Drug Act, the Federal Reserve Act, and the Clayton Antitrust Act. Women's suffrage also gained momentum, culminating in the 19th Amendment in 1920. This era laid the groundwork for a more active government role in addressing social and economic issues.

The Berlin Conference of 1884–1885, convened by German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, formalized the process of colonization. At the conference, European nations established rules for the division of Africa, aiming to prevent conflict among themselves while disregarding the existing political and cultural divisions in Africa. Key participants included Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Portugal, and Italy.

Economic motivations played a crucial role in the Scramble for Africa. The Industrial Revolution had created a demand for raw materials such as rubber, copper, and cotton, which Africa had in abundance. European powers sought to exploit these resources to fuel their industries and enhance their economies. Additionally, the continent presented new markets for European manufactured goods.

Political and strategic considerations also drove the colonization process. European powers, vying for global dominance, viewed the acquisition of African territories as a means to bolster their international standing. Colonies were seen as symbols of national prestige and power, and their control offered strategic advantages, such as naval bases and coaling stations for ships.

The belief in European racial superiority and the civilizing mission, often referred to as the "White Man's Burden," provided ideological justification for colonization. Europeans felt it was their duty to bring civilization, Christianity, and Western values to African societies, which they viewed as backward and primitive.

The impact of the Scramble for Africa on the continent was profound and often devastating. European colonization led to the exploitation of African resources and labor, significant alterations to African political and social structures, and the imposition of artificial boundaries that disregarded ethnic and cultural divisions. These boundaries contributed to future conflicts and instability. The resistance by African societies was met with brutal repression, and the legacy of colonial rule left enduring challenges for the newly independent African nations that emerged in the mid-20th