- Formal Qualities: Carved stone, registers, composite view, hieratic scale.

-Iconography: Narmer with White/Red Crowns, Horus falcon

-Social/Historical: Celebrates unification of Egypt; ceremonial/propaganda piece.

• Location: Chauvet Cave, France

• Civilization: Upper Paleolithic

• Artist: Unknown

• Stylistic Period: Cave painting

• Formal Qualities: Naturalistic outlines of cave bears in red ochre and charcoal.

• Iconography: Bears shown in profile, possible ritual or symbolic meaning.

• Social/Historical Influences: May have been tied to hunting rituals or spiritual respect for dangerous animals.

• Date: c. 7000 BCE

• Civilization: Neolithic

• Artist: Unknown

• Stylistic Period: Early Neolithic ritual art

• Formal Qualities: Real human skulls covered in plaster, shells for eyes.

• Iconography: Ancestor worship, remembrance of the dead.

• Social/Historical Influences: Early villages practiced ancestor veneration.

• Date: c. 6000 BCE

• Civilization: Neolithic

• Artist: Unknown

• Stylistic Period: Early settled farming culture

• Formal Qualities: Mud-brick houses, wall paintings of hunting scenes and geometric patterns.

• Iconography: Ritual and daily life, animals, hunters, volcanic eruptions.

• Social/Historical Influences: One of the earliest permanent farming communities.

• Date: c. 3500 BCE

• Civilization: Neolithic Europe

• Artist: Unknown

• Stylistic Period: Ceramic figurines

• Formal Qualities: Clay male and female figures in seated poses.

• Iconography: “The Thinker” pose suggests meditation, mourning, or ritual.

• Social/Historical Influences: Indicates symbolic thought and early European ritual practices.

• Date: c. 2500 BCE

• Civilization: Neolithic China

• Artist: Unknown

• Stylistic Period: Ritual jade objects

• Formal Qualities: Cong = square tube with circular hole, Bi = flat disk with circular hole, carved from jade.

• Iconography: Heaven (circle) and Earth (square).

• Social/Historical Influences: Used in burials for elite leaders.

• Date: 2700–2500 BCE

• Civilization: Sumerian

• Formal Qualities: Carved stone votive statues, wide eyes, clasped hands.

• Iconography: Worshippers eternally praying to the gods.

• Date: c. 2600 BCE

• Civilization: Sumerian

• Formal Qualities: Gold, lapis lazuli, shell on wood.

• Iconography: Goat reaching for a tree, possible fertility or myth symbol.

• Date: c. 2600 BCE

• Civilization: Sumerian

• Formal Qualities: Wooden harp with gold bull’s head, inlaid lapis and shell.

• Iconography: Mythical scenes of animals playing human roles.

Civilization: Akkadian

Formal Qualities: Bronze portrait head, life-like detail, damaged eyes.

Iconography: Probably Sargon of Akkad or Naram-Sin.

Civilization: Neolithic/Proto-Elamite

Formal Qualities: Painted ceramic with stylized animals and geometric designs.

Iconography: Long-necked birds, dogs, ibex (goat) with huge horns.

Civilization: Akkadian

Formal Qualities: Pink sandstone stele with diagonal composition.

Iconography: King shown larger than soldiers, climbing mountain, stars as gods.

Social/Historical: Celebrates military victory; portrays king as divine.

Civilization: Cycladic

Formal Qualities: Marble statuette; abstract, geometric form; folded arms.

Iconography: Likely a female figure; possible fertility or funerary function.

Civilization: Cycladic

Formal Qualities: Marble; seated figure playing harp; stylized, abstract features.

Iconography: Musician, possibly connected to ritual or funerary practices.

Civilization: Old Kingdom Egypt

Formal Qualities: Limestone blocks; largest of the Giza pyramids; precise geometry.

Iconography: Royal tomb; symbol of divine kingship and eternal life.

Civilization: Old Kingdom Egypt

Formal Qualities: Limestone pyramid; slightly smaller than Khufu’s; retains casing stones at top.

Iconography: Tomb for Pharaoh Khafra; associated with nearby Great Sphinx.

Civilization: Old Kingdom Egypt

Formal Qualities: Smallest of the three main Giza pyramids; granite and limestone construction.

Iconography: Tomb of Pharaoh Menkaure; part of Giza necropolis complex.

Civilization: Old Kingdom Egypt

Formal Qualities: Slate statue; standing figures; rigid, frontal pose; idealized proportions.

Iconography: Pharaoh and queen shown united; symbols of power and stability.

Civilization: Old Kingdom Egypt

Formal Qualities: Diorite statue; seated figure; symmetrical, idealized body.

Iconography: Falcon god Horus protecting the king; symbol of divine kingship.

Civilization: Old Kingdom Egypt

Formal Qualities: Painted limestone; seated cross-legged; realistic body and facial features.

Iconography: Represents an official of the court; attentive pose with papyrus scroll.

Civilization: Sumerian

Formal Qualities: Mud-brick stepped platform; rectangular base with sloping sides and staircases.

Iconography: Temple base raised toward the heavens; link between gods and humans.

Civilization: Babylonian

Formal Qualities: Basalt stele; carved cuneiform text; relief of Hammurabi with Shamash.

Iconography: Hammurabi receiving authority from sun god Shamash; divine source of law.

Civilization: Minoan

Formal Qualities: Elaborate room with frescoes; dolphins and marine life motifs; light, airy design.

Iconography: Marine imagery symbolizing harmony with nature and the sea.

Civilization: Minoan

Formal Qualities: True fresco technique; vibrant colors; naturalistic landscape with flowers and swallows.

Iconography: Celebration of nature’s renewal and harmony; no humans depicted.

Civilization: Mycenaean, found in a burial spot

Formal Qualities: Beaten gold funerary mask; stylized facial features.

Iconography: Represents a noble or king buried at Mycenae; symbol of status in afterlife.

Civilization: Minoan

Formal Qualities: True fresco; lively movement; elongated, stylized figures.

Iconography: Bull-leaping ritual, possibly athletic or ceremonial event.

Civilization: Minoan

Formal Qualities: Marine-style pottery; painted octopus wraps around vessel.

Iconography: Sea imagery symbolizing Minoan seafaring culture.

Civilization: Middle Kingdom Egypt

Formal Qualities: Painted wall scene; detailed animals and figures; use of registers.

Iconography: Depicts daily life and care of animals; symbolizes prosperity and order.

Civilization: New Kingdom Egypt

Formal Qualities: Terraced mortuary temple built into cliffside; colonnades and ramps.

Iconography: Dedicated to Amun and Hatshepsut; reliefs depict divine birth and trade expeditions.

Civilization: New Kingdom Egypt

Formal Qualities: Granite statue; pharaoh kneeling with offering jars; idealized features.

Iconography: Hatshepsut shown in male king’s regalia, presenting offerings to Amun.

Civilization: Amarna Period, New Kingdom Egypt

Formal Qualities: Sunken relief; elongated, curved figures; intimate family scene.

Iconography: Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and daughters under Aten’s sun rays ending in hands of life.

Civilization: Amarna Period, New Kingdom Egypt

Formal Qualities: Painted limestone bust; elongated neck, symmetrical features; unfinished eye.

Iconography: Idealized yet naturalistic portrait of the queen; symbol of beauty and power.

Civilization: Mycenaean

Formal Qualities: Tholos (beehive) tomb; corbeled stone vault; monumental entry.

Iconography: Royal tomb symbolizing power and wealth.

Civilization: Mycenaean

Formal Qualities: Post-and-lintel with relieving triangle; limestone; relief of lions above.

Iconography: Lions flanking a column; symbol of strength and protection.

Civilization: New Kingdom Egypt

Formal Qualities: Gold with inlay of glass and semi-precious stones.

Iconography: Pharaoh as Osiris; crossed crook and flail; protective deities.

Civilization: New Kingdom Egypt

Formal Qualities: Painted papyrus scroll; sequential narrative registers.

Iconography: Anubis weighing heart against feather; Osiris judging; gods overseeing.

Civilization: New Kingdom Egypt

Formal Qualities: Rock-cut temple; colossal seated statues of Ramesses; interior reliefs.

Iconography: Ramesses II depicted as a god; military victories celebrated.

Civilization: Assyrian

Formal Qualities: Stone gateway; lamassu (winged human-headed bulls) carved in relief.

Iconography: Guardian figures warding off evil; symbol of Assyrian power.

Civilization: Assyrian

Formal Qualities: Carved alabaster reliefs; dynamic movement; detailed lions and figures.

Iconography: King hunting lions = royal dominance over chaos.

Civilization: Neo-Babylonian

Formal Qualities: Glazed brick; blue surface with reliefs of lions, dragons, bulls.

Iconography: Sacred animals of gods; ceremonial gateway to city.

Civilization: Persian (Achaemenid)

Formal Qualities: Stone column capital; double-headed bulls.

Iconography: Symbol of strength supporting royal audience hall roof.

Civilization: Persian (Achaemenid)

Formal Qualities: Stone relief; hierarchical scale; orderly composition.

Iconography: King enthroned with attendants; tribute bearers shown in registers.

• Big, tall vase with lots of simple patterns (zigzags, triangles).

• Stick-figure people.

• Very balanced.

Iconography:

• Shows a funeral: dead person lying down, people crying and pulling their hair.

• Some weird human-animal shapes.

Social-Historical:

• Used as a grave marker in Athens.

• Shows how they buried and honored the dead.

• Stiff standing pose, Archaic smile, long clothes, patterned hair.

Iconography:

• Young woman; could be a goddess or grave marker.

Social-Historical:

• Shows early Greek religion and Egyptian influence.

• Stiff pose, one foot forward, Archaic smile, patterned hair, simple muscles.

Iconography:

• Young man; grave marker or offering; symbol of ideal youth.

Social-Historical:

• Egyptian influence; early Greek study of the human body.

Stylistic Period: Archaic, Black-Figure

Formal Qualities:

• Black-figure vase; black silhouettes with carved details.

• Careful detail in armor and clothing; stylized but natural poses.

Iconography:

• Achilles and Ajax playing dice during a battle break.

• Shows a quiet, human moment from The Iliad.

Historical Influences:

• Greek love of storytelling in art.

• Vases used for storage or graves; celebrates heroic myths.

Stylistic Period: Early Classical

Formal Qualities:

• Standing male; natural contrapposto; realistic muscles; calm face; real-life proportions.

Iconography:

• Ideal young man or athlete; shows natural movement and balance.

Social-Historical:

• Marks shift from stiff Archaic style to realistic Classical style; reflects Greek humanism.

Stylistic Period: Early Classical

Formal Qualities:

• Bronze god statue; strong balanced pose; one arm raised for a weapon; natural muscles and movement.

Iconography:

• Zeus or Poseidon; symbolizes power, authority, and control.

Social-Historical:

• Shows Greek focus on ideal human form, divine strength, and natural movement.

Formal Qualities:

• Life-sized male; contrapposto; realistic muscles; calm, ideal face; originally held a spear.

Iconography:

• Ideal athlete/warrior; symbolizes strength, balance, perfect proportions.

Social-Historical:

• Shows Greek focus on math, harmony, and ideal human form.

Stylistic Period: Classical

Formal Qualities:

• Life-sized male; twisting pose; realistic muscles; strong sense of movement and balance.

Iconography:

• Athlete mid-throw; highlights strength, skill, and frozen action.

Social-Historical:

• Shows Greek love of ideal bodies, sports, and natural movement.

Artist: phideas

Stylistic Period: Classical

Formal Qualities:

• Big marble temple; mostly Doric columns; balanced; lots of sculpture.

Iconography:

• Athena’s birth, battle scenes, and the Panathenaic parade.

Social-Historical:

• Honors Athena; shows Athenian power, pride, and ideals.

Stylistic Period: Classical

Formal Qualities:

• Small marble temple; Ionic columns; elegant and balanced; sculpted frieze and parapet.

Iconography:

• Dedicated to Athena as Victory; battle scenes; winged Nike figures.

Social-Historical:

• Celebrates Athenian military wins; reflects Classical ideals and religion.

Stylistic Period: Classical

Formal Qualities:

• Marble relief; graceful leaning pose; flowing, clinging drapery; natural movement.

Iconography:

• Nike, goddess of victory, doing a small human action.

Social-Historical:

• Classical focus on realism; linked to Athenian victory and the Temple of Athena Nike.

Formal Qualities:

• Marble temple with an irregular, multi-level layout; famous Caryatid porch with female figure columns.

Iconography:

• Caryatids as idealized women; temple honors both Athena and Poseidon.

Social-Historical:

• Shows Classical Greek love of proportion and blending sculpture with architecture; reflects Athenian pride and religion.

Formal Qualities:

• Marble Roman copy of a Greek bronze; life-sized with slim, elongated proportions.

• Athlete scraping oil with a strigil; relaxed contrapposto; very natural anatomy.

Iconography:

• Athlete in an everyday moment; celebrates the human body and movement.

Social-Historical:

• Shows Greek admiration for athletes; Lysippos’ new proportions and realism.

Formal Qualities:

• Huge marble statue; exaggerated muscles; leaning on a club; relaxed, heavy contrapposto; tired expression.

Iconography:

• Hercules after his labors; shows strength, endurance, and exhaustion.

Social-Historical:

• Reflects Greek love of heroes and physical perfection; Lysippos’ more realistic proportions; Romans admired and copied Greek art.

Formal Qualities:

• Bronze statue of an exhausted boxer sitting; detailed muscles, scars, and swelling.

• Slumped contrapposto pose; very expressive, emotional face.

Iconography:

• Shows a worn, aging athlete; highlights struggle, pain, and human vulnerability.

Social-Historical:

• Hellenistic focus on realism, emotion, and everyday human experience.

Formal Qualities:

• Marble figure collapsing in death; twisted pose; very detailed muscles and veins; dramatic, emotional expression.

Iconography:

• Dying soldier; shows suffering, heroism, and vulnerability.

Social-Historical:

• Hellenistic focus on drama, realism, and intense emotion; reflects Pergamon’s heroic culture.

Formal Qualities:

• Huge high-relief frieze; twisting, overlapping figures; deep carving; dramatic movement; grand stairway.

Iconography:

• Battle of gods vs. giants; gods powerful, giants struggling; intense heroism and drama.

Social-Historical:

• Hellenistic love of emotion and movement; Pergamon used myth to show political power and expansion.

Formal Qualities:

• Marble figure of Nike landing on a ship; dramatic forward lean; flowing, wind-blown drapery; very dynamic despite missing head and arms.

Iconography:

• Goddess of victory celebrating a naval win; expresses speed, triumph, and divine arrival.

Social-Historical:

• Hellenistic love of motion, drama, and emotion; likely made to honor a real military victory.

Formal Qualities:

• Marble group of Laocoön and sons attacked by serpents; twisting bodies; intense movement; highly detailed muscles and emotional faces.

Iconography:

• Laocoön punished for warning against the Trojan Horse; shows suffering, struggle, and divine punishment.

Social-Historical:

• Hellenistic focus on drama, realism, and human vulnerability; Romans admired and copied works like this.

Formal Qualities:

• Small stone temple with stucco; mix of Greek and Etruscan design.

• Ionic columns only in front; engaged columns on sides; high podium with front stairs.

Iconography:

• Dedicated to Portunus, god of harbors; placed by the Tiber for protection of trade.

Social-Historical:

• Shows Roman mix of Greek style with practical Roman design; reflects order, tradition, and religious duty.

Formal Qualities:

• Marble bust; highly realistic; wrinkles and aged features; serious expression.

Iconography:

• Likely Brutus; symbolizes duty and loyalty to the Republic.

Social-Historical:

• Republican verism valued age, wisdom, and virtue.

Formal Qualities:

• Marble bust; very realistic; wrinkles, balding, serious expression.

Iconography:

• Patrician symbolizing wisdom, honor, and public duty.

Social-Historical:

• Republican verism valued age and virtue; busts honored ancestors and service.

• Large, multi-level palace with courtyard, colorful frescoes, unique columns, and storage rooms.

Function:

• Political/religious center for ceremonies and administration.

Content:

• Bull-leaping, nature scenes, and a maze-like layout (linked to Minotaur myth).

Context:

• Minoan civilization; wealthy, sea-trading culture

Formal Qualities:

• Low-relief marble carving; calm, rhythmic procession; idealized but natural figures; smooth, balanced Classical style.

Iconography:

• Panathenaic festival honoring Athena; horsemen, elders, maidens, and gods; symbolizes Athenian unity and devotion.

Social-Historical:

• Made during Athens’ Golden Age; reflects democracy, civic pride, and Classical ideals; part of the Parthenon’s celebration of the city and its goddess.

Formal Qualities:

• Low-relief marble; calm scene with detailed drapery and gentle poses.

Iconography:

• Hegeso choosing jewelry = wealth, status, and what she leaves behind in death.

Social-Historical:

• Classical Greek memorial; honors women’s domestic roles and ideal beauty.

Formal Qualities:

• Red-figure vase; detailed figures on a black background.

• Two different scenes on each side; varied, natural poses; early use of depth with multiple ground lines.

Iconography:

• Apollo and Artemis killing Niobe’s children (punishment for pride).

• Other side likely Herakles with heroes.

• Themes: hubris, divine power, moral warning.

Social-Historical:

• Classical shift toward realism and space.

• Used at symposia where myths were discussed.

• Shows Greek interest in beauty, storytelling, and moral lessons.

Formal Qualities:

• Deep high relief; twisting, emotional figures; dramatic motion and shadows.

Iconography:

• Athena defeats giant Alkyoneus; Gaia pleads; Nike crowns her, gods triumph over chaos.

Social-Historical:

• Hellenistic drama and power; Pergamon used it to show strength and divine favor.

Formal Qualities:

• Detailed mosaic of tiny tesserae; dramatic movement and diagonals; expressive faces; realistic reflections and battlefield chaos.

Iconography:

• Alexander charges forward bravely; Darius recoils in fear; shows heroism, defeat, and the intensity of war.

Social-Historical:

• Roman copy of a famous Greek painting; reflects Hellenistic drama and admiration for Greek military power.

Identification
• Etruscan
• Fibula from the Regolini-Galassi Tomb, Cerveteri
• ca. 670–650 BCE
• Orientalizing period of Etruscan art

Formal Qualities:

• Gold garment pin with tiny granulation; lions and geometric patterns; very precise and decorative.

Iconography:

• Lions = power and protection; gold shows wealth and elite status; likely a tomb offering.

Social-Historical:

• Found in a wealthy Etruscan tomb; shows Near Eastern influence and strong aristocratic culture.

Formal Qualities:

• Underground stone tomb with painted reliefs of household items, weapons, and beds; warm, home-like atmosphere.

Iconography:

• Everyday objects = comfort in the afterlife; weapons = protection; Kerberos = underworld connection; tomb as a home for ancestors.

Social-Historical:

• Shows Etruscan belief in a home-like afterlife, strong family identity, and wealthy status; blends Greek influence with Etruscan warmth.

Formal Qualities:

• Bright frescoes; lively figures in motion; outdoor scenes with birds, water, and nature; stylized, expressive forms.

Iconography:

• Hunting and fishing = vitality and joy; diving = transition to afterlife; images suggest life’s pleasures continue beyond death.

Social-Historical:

• Etruscan tombs celebrated life; reflects elite status, love of nature, and belief in a pleasant afterlife.

• Title: Sarcophagus from Cerveteri (Sarcophagus of the Spouses)

• Culture: Etruscan

• Date: ca. 520 BCE

• Artist: Unknown

• Period: Archaic Etruscan

• Material: Painted terra cotta

Formal Qualities:

• Terra-cotta sarcophagus of a husband and wife reclining together; stylized faces, expressive hands, warm and rounded forms.

Iconography:

• Banquet pose = eternal feasting and joy; shows partnership, family unity, and a happy afterlife.

Social-Historical:

• Reflects Etruscan value of family and the high status of women; funerary art focused on celebration, not sorrow.

• Title: Charun and Vanth, Tomb at Tarquinia

• Culture: Etruscan

• Date: 3rd century BCE

• Artist: Unknown

• Period: Hellenistic Etruscan

• Medium: Tomb painting

Formal Qualities:

• Bold painted figures with strong outlines and dramatic expressions; stylized, emotional, and pushed to the front; darker mood.

Iconography:

• Charun = death demon enforcing death’s boundary.

• Vanth = winged guide who leads souls.

• Together show fear + reassurance in the journey to the afterlife.

Social-Historical:

• From a later, more somber Etruscan period with Hellenistic influence; reflects worries about death as Rome rose; shows unique Etruscan beliefs about afterlife spirits.

• Reconstruction of an Etruscan Temple (based on Vitruvius)

• Etruscan

• Originally 6th century BCE

• Artist unknown

• Archaic Etruscan period

• Architecture made from wood, mud-brick, and terracotta

Formal Qualities:

• Wood and mud-brick with terracotta; tall front podium and deep porch; Tuscan columns only in front; three interior rooms; roof statues.

Iconography:

• Meant to be approached from the front; roof gods (like Apollo) show divine presence; three cellae for major Etruscan deities.

Social-Historical:

• Known through Vitruvius; shows Etruscan ritual-focused design and strong terracotta tradition; heavily influenced later Roman temples.

Formal Qualities:

• Life-size terracotta statue; energetic forward stride; Archaic smile and patterned hair; flowing drapery; fully 3-D and brightly painted.

Iconography:

• Apollo (Aplu) in an active rooftop myth scene; dynamic pose shows divine power and presence.

Social-Historical:

• Etruscan terracotta tradition; roof statues engaged viewers below; influenced by Greek Archaic style but more expressive; shows belief in active gods.

• Title: Chimera

• Culture: Etruscan

• Date: 400 BCE

• Artist: Unknown

• Period: Classical Etruscan

• Material: Bronze sculpture

• Location found: Arezzo, Italy

Formal Qualities:

• Detailed bronze statue; twisting, tense pose; sharp expression; defined muscles; realistic fur and serpent tail.

Iconography:

• Mythical lion-goat-snake creature; symbolizes danger, power, and heroic struggle; linked to Bellerophon.

Social-Historical:

• Shows Etruscan bronze mastery; influenced by Greek myth; likely a temple offering; reflects elite patronage.

• Title: Augustus of Primaporta

• Date: Roman copy around 20 CE, original likely around 20 BCE

• Culture: Roman Empire

• Artist: Unknown

• Material: Marble (original probably bronze)

• Style: Early Imperial Roman with strong Classical Greek influence

Formal Qualities:

• Idealized, youthful statue; contrapposto; raised arm; detailed armor; barefoot with Cupid on a dolphin.

Iconography:

• Shows Augustus as military leader and semi-divine ruler; breastplate celebrates victory and divine lineage.

Social-Historical:

• Imperial propaganda promoting Augustus as god-backed, powerful, and peaceful; model for later emperors.

• Title: West Façade of the Ara Pacis Augustae (Altar of Augustan Peace)

• Date: 13–9 BCE

• Culture: Roman Empire, Augustan period

• Location: Rome

• Artist: Unknown

• Material: Marble

• Style: Early Imperial Roman with Classical Greek influence

Formal Qualities:

• Marble monument with detailed reliefs; naturalistic, idealized figures; deep carving and decorative vines; organized narrative panels.

Iconography:

• Celebrates peace under Augustus; myth scenes link him to Aeneas and divine ancestry; vines symbolize fertility and prosperity.

Social-Historical:

• Senate commissioned it to honor Augustus’s victories and restored order; strong imperial propaganda showing him as Rome’s rightful, god-backed ruler.

Formal Qualities:

• Massive concrete amphitheater with arches, vaults, and tiered seating.

Iconography:

• Shows Roman power and public entertainment culture.

Social-Historical:

• Built to gain public favor and display imperial strength.

• Title: Arch of Titus

• Location: Rome, Italy (Roman Forum)

• Date: 81 CE

• Culture: Roman Empire, Flavian period

• Patron: Emperor Domitian, in honor of Titus

• Material: Marble over a concrete core

• Type: Triumphal arch

Formal Qualities:

• Single arch with reliefs, Composite columns, and a coffered barrel vault.

Iconography:

• Shows Titus’s triumph and the Menorah taken from Jerusalem.

Social-Historical:

• Flavian propaganda celebrating military victory on the Sacred Way.

• Title: Forum of Trajan (restored view)

• Location: Rome, Italy

• Date: 112 CE

• Culture: Roman Empire, High Empire period

• Patron: Emperor Trajan

• Architect: Apollodorus of Damascus

• Materials: Marble, concrete, stone (original)

• Function: Public, political, legal, and commercial complex

Formal Qualities:

• Massive complex with basilica, courtyard, libraries, Trajan’s Column, and nearby market.

Iconography:

• Column shows Trajan’s Dacian victories and holds his burial.

Social-Historical:

• Built with Dacian wealth; largest imperial forum; symbol of Roman power and engineering.

• Title: Column of Trajan

• Location: Rome, Italy (Forum of Trajan)

• Date: 106–113 CE

• Culture: Roman Empire, High Imperial period

• Patron: Emperor Trajan

• Material: Marble

• Function: Commemorative monument and burial marker for Trajan

Formal Qualities:

• Tall marble column with a spiral relief narrative and interior staircase.

Iconography:

• Shows Trajan’s Dacian Wars—marching, building, battles, and leadership.

Social-Historical:

• Part of Trajan’s Forum; funded by Dacian wealth; holds Trajan’s ashes; propagandistic record of Roman power.

• Title: Pantheon

• Location: Rome, Italy

• Date: 117–125 CE, during Hadrian’s reign

• Culture: Roman Empire, High Imperial period

• Patron: Emperor Hadrian (inscription credits Agrippa)

• Material: Concrete, marble, brick

• Function: Temple to all gods, later converted to a Christian church

Formal Qualities:

• Huge rotunda with a concrete dome, oculus, and Corinthian portico.

Iconography:

• Temple to all gods; dome = heavens; oculus = divine light.

Social-Historical:

• Shows Roman engineering mastery; built under Hadrian; later became a church, preserving it.

• Title: Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius

• Location: Originally on Capitoline Hill, Rome; now Capitoline Museums

• Date: 161–180 CE

• Culture: Roman Empire, High Imperial period

• Material: Bronze with traces of original gilding

• Artist: Unknown

• Function: Imperial monument honoring Marcus Aurelius

Formal Qualities:

• Bronze emperor on horseback, calm and commanding.

Iconography:

• Wise, peaceful ruler; philosopher-emperor.

Social-Historical:

• Imperial propaganda; survived because people thought it was Constantine.

• Title: Atrium of the House of the Silver Wedding

• Location: Pompeii, Italy

• Date: 2nd century BCE to 79 CE (preserved by eruption)

• Culture: Roman Empire

• Material: Stone, plaster, terracotta

• Function: Atrium in a Roman domus used for greeting guests and public household activities

Formal Qualities:

• Central atrium with roof opening and water basin; light-filled, decorated space.

Iconography:

• Shows wealth, hospitality, and family status; water = purity + engineering skill.

Social-Historical:

• Heart of elite Roman homes; used for greeting guests and business; preserved at Pompeii.

• Title: Fourth Style wall painting, Ixion Room, House of the Vettii

• Location: Pompeii, Italy

• Date: 63 to 79 CE

• Culture: Roman Empire

• Medium: Fresco

• Style: Fourth Style Roman wall painting

Formal Qualities:

• Mix of illusionistic architecture and flat decoration; bold colors; ornate, complex Fourth Style design.

Iconography:

• Myth of Ixion’s punishment; theme = consequences of immoral behavior; luxury + moral messaging.

Social-Historical:

• Wealthy freedmen showing status after 62 CE earthquake; Roman taste for myth, luxury, and impressive home décor.

• Title: Basilica of Maxentius later called Basilica of Constantine

• Location: Roman Forum, Rome

• Date: around 307 CE

• Culture: Late Roman Empire

• Commissioned by Maxentius and finished by Constantine

• Materials: concrete, brick, marble

• Function: public administrative building and law court

Formal Qualities:

• Huge concrete basilica with groin vaults, barrel-vaulted nave, clerestory light, and an apse for Constantine’s statue.

Iconography:

• Scale and statue express Roman imperial power and divine authority.

Social-Historical:

• Last major Forum basilica; used for civic business; shows shift toward Christian-era architecture.

• Title: Portrait of Constantine the Great

• Date: early 4th century CE around 315 to 330 CE

• Culture: Late Roman Empire

• Material: marble (original statue also had wood and bronze core with marble on the outside)

• Location: originally placed inside the Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine in Rome

• Artist: unknown

• Type: colossal portrait statue

Formal Qualities:

• Enormous idealized marble head; simplified features; huge upward-looking eyes; symbolic, not realistic.

Iconography:

• Constantine as God-chosen ruler; upward gaze = divine authority; colossal size = power.

Social-Historical:

• Made after Christianity legalized; marks shift toward spiritual, symbolic art; imperial propaganda in a basilica setting.

• Title: Arch of Constantine

• Location: Rome Italy next to the Colosseum

• Date: 312 to 315 CE

• Culture: Late Roman Empire

• Patron: Emperor Constantine

• Material: marble and concrete

• Purpose: triumphal arch celebrating Constantine’s victory at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge

Formal Qualities:

• Triple arch with reused sculptures (spolia); mix of classical and blocky Late Antique styles.

Iconography:

• Celebrates Constantine’s victory and ties him to earlier emperors.

Social-Historical:

• Built after he took power; marks shift toward Christian-era symbolism.

• Title: Painted Ceiling, Catacomb of Santissimi Pietro e Marcellino
• Location: Rome, Italy
• Date: 4th century CE
• Culture: Early Christian
• Material: Fresco painted on plaster
• Purpose: Decorated burial chamber expressing Christian beliefs about salvation, protection, and eternal life

Formal Qualities:

• Fresco with Christ in center, OT scenes around, decorative patterns.

Iconography:

• Good Shepherd = protection and salvation; OT stories = resurrection hope.

Social-Historical:

• Early Christian art in catacombs; symbolic imagery before crucifixion became standard.

Formal Qualities:

• Simple marble relief panels with front-facing, symbolic figures.

Iconography:

• Good Shepherd, Jonah, and praying figures = salvation and resurrection.

Social-Historical:

• Pre-legalization Christian art using Roman styles but symbolic imagery.

• Title: Mausoleum of Galla Placidia
• Location: Ravenna, Italy
• Date: 425 to 450 CE
• Culture: Early Christian
• Patron: Linked to Galla Placidia, though she was not buried here
• Material: Plain brick outside, mosaics inside
• Purpose: Small cross shaped chapel and burial space showing hope in salvation and eternal life

• Good Shepherd Mosaic
• Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Ravenna
• 425–450 CE
• Early Christian
• Mosaic of glass and stone
• Purpose: Show Christ as protector and give hope of salvation

Formal Qualities: plain outside, glowing mosaic inside.

Iconography: Christ as protector and giver of eternal life.

Social Historical Context: built as Christianity gained power.

• Title: Old St. Peter’s
• Location: Rome, Italy
• Date: ca. 324–400 CE
• Culture: Early Christian
• Patron: Emperor Constantine
• Material: Timber roof, brick walls, marble columns, mosaic decoration
• Purpose: Large Christian basilica built over the supposed burial site of St. Peter; used for worship, pilgrimage, and major church ceremonies

Formal Qualities (Inside): Huge basilica interior with columns, light, and rich decoration.

Formal Qualities (Outside): Plain brick exterior with a simple façade and atrium.

Formal Qualities (Plan): Long basilica plan with nave, aisles, transept, and apse over Peter’s tomb.

Iconography: Built over St. Peter’s grave, symbolizing authority, pilgrimage, and Christ’s triumph.

Social Historical Context: First imperial Christian church showing Rome’s shift to a Christian empire.

Identification

• Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus
• Rome, ca. 359 CE
• Early Christian
• Patron: Junius Bassus, a Roman official who converted
• Marble burial sarcophagus showing Christian salvation themes

Formal Qualities: Marble relief with neat rows of framed biblical scenes.

Iconography: Young Christ and other figures showing salvation and God’s protection.

Social Historical Context: Made as Christianity rose, blending Roman art with new Christian power.

• Title: Interior of the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia
• Location: Ravenna, Italy
• Date: 425–450 CE
• Culture: Early Christian
• Patron: Traditionally connected to Galla Placidia (imperial family), though her burial here is unlikely
• Material: Brick exterior, interior covered with glass mosaic
• Purpose: Small Christian chapel and mausoleum designed to symbolize heaven and eternal life for the deceased

Formal Qualities: Plain outside, but inside glows with colorful mosaics, soft light, and a simple cross-shaped plan.

Iconography: Heavenly imagery (stars, Christ, lambs) showing protection, salvation, and eternal life.

Social Historical Context: Made as Christianity rose in power, shifting art toward spiritual, early Byzantine style

• Title: San Vitale
• Location: Ravenna, Italy
• Date: 526–547 CE• Culture: Earlt Byzantine
Exterior: Plain brick octagon on the outside.

Interior: Bright gold mosaics inside with a tall dome.

Plan: Central octagon with a dome and walkway around it.

Mosaics: Flat, shiny gold figures like Justinian and Theodora.

Apse Iconography: Christ gives authority and eternal life.

Justinian Iconography: Justinian shown as a powerful, God-approved ruler.

Theodora Iconography: Theodora shown rich, royal, and holy.

Social Context: Shows Byzantine power and belief that rulers were chosen by God.

• Hagia Sophia
• Istanbul, Turkey
• 532–537 CE
• Early Byzantine
• Patron: Justinian I
• Architects: Anthemius and Isidorus
• Materials: brick, stone, marble, mosaics
• Purpose: Main imperial church showing divine and imperial power

Exterior: Huge dome, plain heavy outside.

Interior: Glowing open space under floating dome.

Plan: Mix of basilica + central plan.

Iconography: Dome/light = heaven + divine power.

Social Context: Built for Justinian’s power; later mosque.

• Christ Pantokrator Icon
• St Catherine’s Monastery, Mount Sinai, Egypt
• 6th century CE
• Early Byzantine
• Encaustic painting on wood
• Purpose: Religious icon for prayer and devotion

Formal Qualities: Frontal Christ portrait with two expressions and a gold, heavenly background.

Iconography: Christ shown as almighty ruler with blessing hand and Gospel.

Social Historical Context: Early Byzantine icon that survived iconoclasm and shows spiritual, symbolic style.

• Virgin and Child Enthroned Between Saints and Angels

• St Catherine’s Monastery, Mount Sinai, Egypt

• 6th century CE

• Early Byzantine

• Encaustic on wood

• Purpose: Religious icon for prayer and devotion

Formal Qualities: Frontal Mary and Christ on a throne with saints, angels, and a gold divine background.

Iconography: Mary as mother of God with Christ blessing, protected by saints and linked to heaven.

Social Historical Context: Pre-Iconoclasm icon showing early Byzantine symbolic style and rising Marian importance.

• Title: Monastery of St. Catherine
• Location: Mount Sinai, Egypt
• Date: Late 6th century CE (founded under Emperor Justinian, ca. 548–565 CE)
• Culture: Early Byzantine
• Patron: Emperor Justinian I
• Material: Stone walls, fortress-style construction; interior includes mosaics, icons, manuscripts
• Purpose: Monastery, pilgrimage site, and spiritual center; built to protect monks and preserve holy relics, including the site traditionally associated with the Burning Bush

Exterior: Fortress-like stone walls with a plain, defensive desert exterior.

Interior/Complex: Compact monastery with rare mosaics, icons, chapels, and an ancient library.

Iconography: Focus on the Burning Bush, Transfiguration, and holy icons symbolizing divine light.

Social Historical Context: Justinian-era monastery preserved by its remote location and central to early Christian tradition.

• Title: Christ Pantocrator
• Location: Church of the Dormition, Daphni, Greece
• Date: ca. 1080–1100 CE (Middle Byzantine period)
• Culture: Middle Byzantine
• Material: Mosaic (glass and gold tesserae)
• Purpose: Dome mosaic representing Christ as the all-powerful ruler and judge; meant to remind worshippers of Christ’s authority and divine presence

Formal Qualities: Stern, frontal Christ in a gold dome mosaic with strong shading and authority.

Iconography: Christ Pantocrator as divine judge holding the Gospels and blessing the viewer.

Social Historical Context: Middle Byzantine dome image showing Christ’s power and heavenly rule.

• Title: Madonna Enthroned
• Date: Late 13th century CE
• Location: Italy (commonly associated with artists like Cimabue or Duccio, depending on the example used)
• Culture: Late byzantine
• Material: Tempera and gold leaf on wood panel
• Purpose: Altarpiece created for a church to honor the Virgin Mary and inspire devotion among worshippers

Formal Qualities: Mary and Christ on a golden throne, large and stylized with a rich, ornate look.

Iconography: Mary as Queen of Heaven with Christ blessing, surrounded by worshipping angels.

Social Historical Context: Medieval devotional painting showing shift from Byzantine flatness toward early Renaissance naturalism.

Title: The Harrowing of Hell (Anastasis)

• Location: Chora Church (Kariye Camii), Istanbul, Turkey

• Date: c. 1315–1321 CE

• Culture: Late Byzantine (Palaeologan Renaissance)

• Material: Fresco (painted on plaster)

• Purpose: Part of the funerary chapel decoration; teaches the Christian belief that Christ descended into Hell to save the righteous before His resurrection

Formal Qualities: Dynamic scene with glowing Christ pulling Adam and Eve from darkness.

Iconography: Christ descends to Hell, defeats death, and lifts all humanity toward salvation.

Social Historical Context: Late Byzantine fresco showing emotional, spiritual focus during the Palaeologan revival.

• Title: Dome of the Rock

• Location: Jerusalem

• Date: around 690 CE (and rebuilt/renovated many times after)

• Culture: Islamic

• Material: Stone, mosaics, tilework, wood, and a golden dome

• Purpose: A religious shrine built over a very holy rock connected to stories from Islam, Christianity, and Judaism

Exterior: Big golden dome on an octagon, covered in blue tiles.

Interior: Gold mosaics, patterned designs, and the holy rock in the center.

Plan: Central octagon with a dome directly over the rock.

Iconography: Golden dome = heaven; rock is sacred to all three religions.

Social Context: Early Islamic monument showing Islamic identity in Jerusalem.

• Title: Mihrab (Prayer Niche)
• Location: Isfahan, Iran
• Date: 1354–55 CE
• Culture: Islamic (Ilkhanid period)
• Material: Glazed ceramic tiles
• Purpose: A special niche in a mosque wall that shows Muslims the direction of Mecca for prayer

Formal Qualities: A tall arched niche covered in bright blue tiles, patterns, and calligraphy.

Iconography: Shows the direction of prayer and uses patterns/verses to symbolize God’s infinite nature.

Social Context: Persian Islamic tilework showing prayer traditions and non-figural decoration

• Title: Minaret, Great Mosque of Samarra
• Location: Samarra, Iraq
• Date: 848–852 CE
• Culture: Islamic (Abbasid period)
• Material: Brick
• Purpose: A tall tower used to call Muslims to prayer; also a symbol of the mosque’s presence and the power of the Abbasid Empire

Formal Qualities: A huge brick spiral tower with no decoration.

Iconography: Tall spiral symbolizes prayer rising toward heaven.

Social Context: Built in Abbasid Samarra to show power and serve the call to prayer

• Title: Great Mosque of Córdoba

• Location: Córdoba, Spain

• Date: Begun 786 CE (expanded several times under later rulers)

• Culture: Islamic (Umayyad Spain / Al-Andalus)

• Material: Stone, brick, marble

• Purpose: A major mosque for worship and a symbol of Islamic power in Spain

Exterior: Big rectangular complex with a courtyard and fortress-like walls.

Interior: Forest of columns with red-and-white arches and a rich mosaic mihrab.

Plan: Hypostyle hall with a courtyard in front and mihrab at the back.

Iconography: Arches, calligraphy, and patterns show Islamic Spain’s style and God’s infinite presence.

Social Context: Built in Muslim-ruled Córdoba and later turned into a cathedral, mixing cultures.

• Title: Madrasa of Ulugh Beg

• Location: Samarkand, Uzbekistan

• Date: ca. 1435 CE

• Culture: Timurid (Central Asian Islamic)

• Material: Brick, glazed tile, carved stucco, wood

• Purpose: A madrasa = an Islamic school for studying religion, math, astronomy, science, and literature

Exterior: Large rectangular school with a huge tiled iwan and tall minarets.

Interior: Courtyard, student rooms, and blue patterned tiles everywhere.

Plan: Square building with a central courtyard and four iwans.

Iconography: Geometric stars and calligraphy show God’s order and celebrate learning.

Social Context: Built by Ulugh Beg during the Islamic Golden Age as a major center of study.

• Title: Court of the Lions

• Location: Alhambra Palace, Granada, Spain

• Date: Mid-14th century CE

• Culture: Islamic (Nasrid Dynasty)

• Material: Stucco, marble, tile, carved wood

• Purpose: A private palace courtyard used for relaxation, poetry, gatherings, and symbolizing paradise

Exterior/Layout: Open courtyard with thin columns and a lion fountain in the center.

Decoration: Intricate stucco patterns, calligraphy, and muqarnas covering the walls and arches.

Plan: Rectangular paradise garden with a central fountain and four water channels.

Iconography: Lions, water, and patterns symbolize paradise, power, and God’s perfection.

Social Context: Built by the Nasrids as a luxurious palace showing the height of Islamic Spain.

• Title: Wine Cup of Shah Jahan

• Location: Northern India

• Date: Mid-17th century CE

• Culture: Mughal Empire

• Material: White jade (nephrite), with gold + gemstone inlays

• Purpose: A luxury drinking vessel used by Shah Jahan, the Mughal emperor who also built the Taj Mahal

Formal Qualities: Thin, glowing white jade cup shaped like a lotus with a ram-head handle.

Iconography: Jade, lotus, and ram symbolize purity, beauty, and royal strength.

Social Context: Made for Shah Jahan’s luxurious Mughal court to show wealth and elite craftsmanship.

• Title: Akbar and the Elephant Hawai

• Artists: Basawan (designer) and Chatar Muni (painter)

• Location: From the Akbarnama (Book of Akbar), India

• Date: c. 1590 CE

• Culture: Mughal Empire

• Material: Opaque watercolor, ink, and gold on paper

• Purpose: A painted illustration showing a dramatic event from the life of Emperor Akbar, meant to glorify his courage and leadership

Formal Qualities: Bright, detailed miniature of Akbar riding a wild elephant in a chaotic scene.

Iconography: Akbar controlling the elephant symbolizes his strength and power as a ruler.

Social Context: From the Akbarnama, showing Mughal kings using art to promote heroic leadership.

• Title: Jahangir Preferring a Sufi Shaikh to Kings

• Artist: Bichitr (court painter)

• Location: Mughal India

• Date: 1615–1618 CE

• Culture: Mughal Empire

• Material: Opaque watercolor, gold, and ink on paper

• Purpose: A court painting showing Emperor Jahangir’s power, but also his spiritual humility and preference for holy men over worldly rulers

Formal Qualities: Bright miniature showing Jahangir on an hourglass throne with a sun-moon halo.

Iconography: Jahangir is shown as divinely chosen, valuing spirituality over worldly kings.

Social Context: Mughal art used to express royal power, global contacts, and spiritual authority.

• Title: Taj Mahal

• Location: Agra, India

• Date: Around 1650 CE

• Culture: Mughal Empire

• Material: White marble with inlaid precious stones

• Purpose: A massive tomb built for Mumtaz Mahal, the beloved wife of Emperor Shah Jahan; also a symbol of love, paradise, and Mughal imperial power

Exterior: White marble, perfectly symmetrical tomb with a huge dome and four minarets.

Interior: Quiet marble chamber with delicate inlay and filtered light.

Plan: Paradise-garden layout with a reflecting pool leading to the tomb.

Iconography: White marble and gardens symbolize heaven, purity, and eternal love.

Social Context: Built by Shah Jahan at the height of the Mughal Empire as a monument to Mumtaz.

Identification: Gold buckle from the Sutton Hoo ship burial.

Formal Qualities: Solid gold with detailed interlocking animal designs.

Iconography: Animals and knots symbolize strength, protection, and status.

Social-Historical: Found in a royal grave, showing wealth, power, and skilled craftsmanship.

Identification: Purse cover from the Sutton Hoo ship burial.

Formal Qualities: Gold, garnets, and enamel arranged in symmetrical geometric and animal designs.

Iconography: Eagles, wolves, and interlacing symbolize power, protection, and unity.

Social-Historical: From a royal grave, showing wealth, status, and advanced early medieval craftsmanship.

Identification: St. Matthew page from the Book of Durrow (c. 680).

Formal Qualities: Flat, patterned, stylized figure with bold outlines.

Iconography: Shows St. Matthew as a holy, authoritative evangelist.

Social-Historical: Early medieval Irish/British monks spreading Christianity through manuscripts.

Identification: Cross page from the Lindisfarne Gospels, Insular manuscript (c. 700).

Formal Qualities: Bright, dense interlace forming a large symmetrical cross.

Iconography: Cross and patterns symbolize Christ, unity, and eternal life.

Social-Historical: Made by monks during Christianity’s growth, showing advanced learning and devotion.

Identification: St. Matthew from the Lindisfarne Gospels (c. 700).

Formal Qualities: More naturalistic seated figure with book, tools, and patterned frame.

Iconography: Matthew writing his Gospel with his symbolic winged man/angel.

Social-Historical: Shows classical influence, growing literacy, and evolving Christian art.

Identification: Chi Rho Iota page from the Book of Kells (c. 800, Insular manuscript).

Formal Qualities: Bright, dense interlace and spirals filling a huge decorative initial.

Iconography: “Chi Rho” marks Christ’s name and celebrates His birth.

Social–Historical: Made by Irish monks showing high skill, devotion, and Christian learning.

Identification: Oseberg burial ship and carved animal head posts (c. 834).

Formal Qualities: Wooden ship with detailed spiral carvings and fierce stylized animal heads.

Iconography: Animal heads symbolize protection and the ship suggests an afterlife journey.

Social–Historical: Elite Viking burial showing wealth, beliefs, and skilled woodcarving.

Identification: Equestrian statue of a Carolingian ruler (likely Charles the Bald), 9th century.

Formal Qualities: Small bronze of a ruler on horseback in a strong, authoritative pose.

Iconography: Horse and posture show leadership, power, and Roman-style imperial legitimacy.

Social–Historical: Carolingians used Roman imagery to assert authority and revive classical traditions.

Identification: St. Matthew from the Coronation Gospels (c. 800–810).

Formal Qualities: Soft, naturalistic, classical-style figure writing calmly.

Iconography: Matthew writing his Gospel shows divine inspiration and learned authority.

Social–Historical: Part of Charlemagne’s classical revival and push for literacy and culture.

Identification: St. Matthew from the Ebbo Gospels (c. 816–835).

Formal Qualities: Energetic, sketchy, restless lines with dramatic movement.

Iconography: Matthew writing with urgent divine inspiration, guided by his angel.

Social–Historical: Shows expressive Carolingian style and artistic experimentation in Reims.

Identification: Front cover of the Lindau Gospels (c. 870).

Formal Qualities: Gold, jewels, and enamel with a raised, ornate, symmetrical Christ figure.

Iconography: Christ shown triumphant on the cross with jewels symbolizing glory and holiness.

Social–Historical: Carolingian luxury object showing devotion, wealth, and the prestige of Gospel books.

Identification: Church of St. Michael’s, Hildesheim, Germany (early 11th century).

Formal Qualities: Symmetrical double-apse basilica with clear modular design and towers.

Iconography: Bronze doors pair Old and New Testament scenes to show biblical fulfillment.

Social–Historical: Built by Bishop Bernward, showing church power, teaching, and revived bronze casting.

Identification: Manuscript pages from the Gospel Book of Otto III (997–1000).

Formal Qualities: Rich gold, bold colors, frontal figures, and regal symmetry.

Iconography: Otto III shown as a divinely blessed ruler with holy authority.

Social–Historical: Ottonian manuscript asserting unity of empire, church, and royal power.

Identification: Gero Crucifix (c. 970).

Formal Qualities: Large realistic wooden Christ with heavy, sagging, emotional form.

Iconography: Shows Christ’s real suffering and humanity on the cross.

Social–Historical: Early medieval sculpture used to inspire deeper emotional devotion in Ottonian worship.

Identification: Nave and choir of Sant Vicenç, Cardona, Spain (Romanesque, c. 1029–1040).

Formal Qualities: Heavy stone, barrel vaults, and simple, strong geometric structure.

Iconography: Fortress-like form symbolizes protection and directs worship toward God.

Social–Historical: Early Romanesque stone vaulting showing monastic, pilgrimage, and security needs.

Formal Qualities: Heavy stone, rounded arches, long cross-shaped plan with a walkway for pilgrims.

Iconography: Built to honor Saint James and symbolize the pilgrim’s spiritual journey.

Social–Historical: Major medieval pilgrimage destination showing church power and city prestige.

Formal Qualities: Large tympanum with Christ big and central among crowded figures.

Iconography: Shows Christ as Judge surrounded by angels and elders.

Social–Historical: Romanesque portals taught biblical messages to illiterate worshippers and reinforced church authority.

Identification: Trumeau and jamb sculptures, south portal of Saint-Pierre, Moissac (early 12th century).

Formal Qualities: Tall, stretched, patterned, rigid-looking figures carved into the doorway.

Iconography: Prophets/apostles symbolically supporting the church with divine truth.

Social–Historical: Romanesque churches used architectural sculpture to teach and inspire worshippers.

Identification: Last Judgment portal by Gislebertus, Saint-Lazare, Autun (c. 1120–1135).

Formal Qualities: Dramatic, crowded, elongated figures with Christ large in the center.

Iconography: Christ judges souls going to heaven or hell—a warning to live righteously.

Social–Historical: Taught moral lessons to illiterate viewers and shows rising artist recognition.

Identification: St. John the Evangelist, from the Gospel Book of Abbot Wedricus (c. 1147).

Formal Qualities: Bright, flat, stylized figure with decorative lines.

Iconography: St. John writing his Gospel shows divine inspiration and sacred authority.

Social-Historical: Monastic manuscript showing medieval devotion and skilled bookmaking.

Formal Qualities: Bold, flat, dramatic scene of figures swallowed by a monster’s mouth.

Iconography: Hell as a beast warns against sin and punishment.

Social–Historical: Taught moral lessons and reflected medieval fear of damnation.

Formal Qualities: White marble, rounded arches, arcades, and decorative stripes in a three-building sacred group.

Iconography: Baptistery for initiation, cathedral for worship, tower for calling to prayer.

Social–Historical: Displays Pisa’s medieval wealth, pride, and religious devotion.

• Baptistery of San Giovanni
• Florence, Italy
• c. 1060–1150, Romanesque

Formal Qualities

• Octagonal building
• Marble decoration in geometric patterns
• Rounded arches and heavy walls

Iconography

• Used for baptism, symbol of spiritual rebirth
• Its beauty reflects the importance of the sacrament

Social-Historical

• One of Florence’s most important religious buildings
• Shows civic pride and growing wealth of the city

• Speyer Cathedral
• Germany

Formal Qualities

• Massive stone interior
• Barrel vaulting added later
• Long nave with rhythmic arches and columns

Iconography

• Monument of imperial power and faith

Social-Historical

• Built under Holy Roman Emperors

• Bayeux Tapestry
• Embroidered cloth, c. 1066–1083
Formal Qualities

• Long, continuous narrative
Iconography

• Shows William the Conqueror’s victory as divinely approved
Social-Historical

• Political propaganda supporting Norman rule
• Visual record for an audience who could not read

• Durham Cathedral
• England
• Built 1093–1130, Romanesque

Formal Qualities

• Massive stone nave

Iconography

• Monument to the church’s strength and God’s power

Social-Historical

• Shows transition from Romanesque to Gothic engineering

• St. Étienne (Abbey Church of Saint-Étienne)
• Caen, France
• Romanesque church

Formal Qualities

• Twin-tower façade
• Long nave with rhythmic arches
• Simple, clear structure
Iconography

• Built to honor God and assert Norman power

Social-Historical

• Founded by William the Conqueror

• Abbey Church of Saint-Denis, France

• 1140–44

Formal Qualities

• Pointed arches, rib vaults, thin walls

Iconography (Meaning)

• Light symbolizes God’s presence

Social-Historical

• Marked shift from Romanesque to Gothic

Identification

• Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Chartres, France

• Built 1145–1220

• Major Gothic cathedral

Formal Qualities (Outside, Inside, Plan, Sculptures, Windows)

• Outside: Pointed arches, flying buttresses, tall towers

Iconography (Meaning)

• Cathedral honors the Virgin Mary, who was believed to protect the city

Social-Historical

• Major pilgrimage site

• Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Paris

• Built ca. 1200–1250

Formal Qualities

• Pointed arches, rib vaults, flying buttresses

Iconography (Meaning)

• Emphasis on Mary

Social-Historical

• Central church of medieval Paris

• Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Reims

• Built ca. 1225–1290

Formal Qualities (Exterior & Portal Sculptures)

• Tall, ornate façade with deep portals

Iconography (Meaning)

• Sculptures depict the Annunciation, Visitation, and kings/saints

Social-Historical

• Traditional site where French kings were crowned

• Melchizedek and Abraham

• From the Psalter of St. Louis

1253–70

Formal Qualities

• Bright colors, gold background

Iconography (Meaning)

• Shows Melchizedek blessing Abraham

Social-Historical

• Created for King Louis IX (St. Louis)

• Virgin of Paris statue

• Early 14th century

• Stone

• Located in Notre-Dame, Paris

Formal Qualities

• Elegant S-curve pose

Iconography

• Emphasizes Mary’s royal status and tenderness

Social-Historical

• Shows court style of late Gothic Paris

Formal Qualities: Long, horizontal church with huge spire, two-story nave, and striped stone columns.

Iconography: Emphasizes calm order, clarity, and stable, elongated space.

Social–Historical: Shows English Gothic identity and strong church influence, different from French style.

• Henry VII’s Chapel (also called the Lady Chapel)

• Westminster Abbey, London

• 1503–19

• English Late Gothic / Perpendicular Gothic

Formal Qualities

• Exterior: Tall, elaborate buttresses; large windows; richly decorated

• Interior: Famous fan vaulting (very delicate, lace-like stonework)

• Plan: Radiating chapels at the east end; long, narrow space

• Extremely ornate pendant vaults hanging from the ceiling

Iconography (Meaning)

• Honors the Virgin Mary (a Lady Chapel)

Social-Historical

• Built under Henry VII as a political and religious statement

• Sculptures of Ekkehard and Uta

• Located in Naumburg Cathedral, Germany

• ca. 1249–55

• Gothic, part of the Naumburg Master’s donor portraits

Formal Qualities

• Highly realistic faces (unusual for the period)

• Detailed, natural-looking drapery

Iconography (Meaning)

• Represent local noble donors who supported the cathedral

Social-Historical

• Shows rise of portrait realism in Gothic art

Identification

• Roettgen Pietà

• Early 14th century

Formal Qualities

• Highly emotional, dramatic expression

• Christ shown thin, distorted, wounded

Iconography (Meaning)

• A Vesperbild (devotional image of Mary mourning Christ)

Social-Historical

• Reflects late medieval focus on personal devotion

• Panel paintings of St. Francis (1235, Berlinghieri) and St. Clare (mid-13th c.)

Formal Qualities

• Gold backgrounds, flat Byzantine style

Iconography

• Francis shown with stigmata; Clare shown with symbols of poverty and devotion

Social-Historical

• Made soon after Francis and Clare were canonized

• Marble pulpit by Nicola Pisano

• 1259–60, Pisa Baptistery

Formal Qualities

• Round pulpit on columns with carved relief panels

Iconography (Meaning)

• Scenes show key events from Christ’s life

Social-Historical

• Shows revival of classical Roman style in Italy

• Florence Cathedral (Santa Maria del Fiore)

• Begun ca. 1294

Formal Qualities (Nave & Plan)

• Nave: Very wide, tall space; simple, clean Gothic lines; pointed arches

• Interior feels spacious and geometric, less decorated than French Gothic

• Plan: Large Latin cross; long nave; big octagonal crossing prepared for dome

Iconography (Meaning)

• Monument to Mary (Santa Maria del Fiore)

Social-Historical

• Built during Florence’s rise as a powerful city-state

• South Doors of Florence Baptistery

• Artist: Andrea Pisano

• 1330–36

• bronze panels

Formal Qualities

• Clear, simple Gothic relief carving

• Figures are calm, balanced, and elegant

Iconography (Meaning)

• Panels show the Life of St. John the Baptist

Social-Historical

• Commissioned by the city of Florence

• ca. 1280–90

• Tempera on panel; Italian Proto-Renaissance

Formal Qualities

• Large throne with stacked, overlapping angels

Iconography (Meaning)

• Mary as the Queen of Heaven, holding Christ Child

Social-Historical

• Represents transition from Byzantine style to Renaissance naturalism

• Madonna Enthroned

• ca. 1310

• Tempera on panel

Formal Qualities

• Solid, weighty figures 

Iconography

• Mary as Queen of Heaven, enthroned with Christ

Social-Historical

• Marks a major shift toward naturalism in Italian art

• 1305–06

• Commissioned by Enrico Scrovegni

Formal Qualities

• Entire interior covered in fresco cycles

Iconography

• Tells the story of Christ’s life, Mary’s life, and The Last Judgment

Social-Historical

• Built as Scrovegni’s act of penance for his father’s usury

• Madonna Enthroned, central panel of the Maestà Altarpiece

• Artist: Duccio di Buoninsegna

• 1308–11

• Painted for Siena Cathedral

Formal Qualities

• Elegant, graceful figures

Iconography

• Mary as Queen of Heaven, surrounded by saints and angels

Social-Historical

• Commissioned during Siena’s rise as a powerful city-state

Identification

• Artist: Duccio di Buoninsegna

• 1308–10, Siena

Formal Qualities

• Elegant, delicate figures

Iconography (Meaning)

• Angel announces to Mary that her earthly life is ending

Social-Historical

• Part of Siena’s major civic-religious project, the Maestà

• Artist: Simone Martini (with Lippo Memmi)

• ca. 1330

Formal Qualities

• Elegant, graceful lines

Iconography (Meaning)

• Angel Gabriel announces to Mary that she will bear Christ

Social-Historical

• Masterpiece of Sienese Gothic elegance

Identification

• Artist: Ambrogio Lorenzetti

• 1338–40

Formal Qualities

• Large wall frescoes showing city and countryside

Iconography (Meaning)

• Good Government: peaceful city, thriving trade, safe countryside

• Bad Government: violence, fear, destruction

Social-Historical

• Painted for Siena’s civic government, not a church

• Artist: Claus Sluter

• 1395–1406

Formal Qualities

• Large stone pillar with life-size Old Testament prophets (Moses, David, Daniel, etc.)

Iconography

• Prophets predict the coming of Christ the Savior

Social-Historical

• Commissioned by the powerful Dukes of Burgundy

• 1413–16

• Illuminated manuscript for the Duke of Berry

Formal Qualities

• Bright colors, tiny details

Iconography

• New Year’s feast

• Wilton Diptych (portable devotional panel)

• ca. 1400

• Likely made for King Richard II

• Tempera and gold on panel

Formal Qualities

• Rich blues and gold, elegant lines

• Two panels: Richard II kneeling → Virgin and Child with angels

• Delicate, refined International Gothic style

Iconography

• Richard II presented to Mary and Christ by saints

• Angels wear the king’s white hart emblem

• Emphasizes Richard’s divine protection and devotion

Social-Historical

• Royal devotional object

• Shows the luxury and refinement of International Gothic

• Connects kingship with heavenly authority

• Robert Campin and workshop

• ca. 1425–30

Formal Qualities

• Detailed interiors, everyday objects

Iconography

• Annunciation set in a Flemish home

Social-Historical

• Shows rise of middle-class patrons

• 1432

Formal Qualities

• Extreme detail, rich color, glowing oil technique

Iconography

Closed:

• Annunciation, prophets, donors

Open:

• Adoration of the Mystic Lamb (center)

Social-Historical

• Monumental achievement of Northern Renaissance realism

• Man in a Red Turban

• Jan van Eyck

• 1433

Formal Qualities

• Hyper-realistic detail (skin, fabric, eyes)

Iconography

• Inscription “As I can”

Social-Historical

• Reflects rising status of artists in the 15th century

• Jan van Eyck

• 1434

• Oil on panel

Formal Qualities

• Incredible detail (fabric, glass, wood)

Iconography

• Man (Giovanni Arnolfini) and woman possibly shown in a marriage or betrothal

• Dog = loyalty

• Shoes removed = sacred space

• Single candle in chandelier = God’s presence

Social-Historical

• Shows rising wealth of merchant class

• ca. 1435

• Oil on panel

Formal Qualities

• Strong emotional expression

Iconography

• Christ being taken down from the cross

Social-Historical

• Reflects Northern focus on emotion + devotion

• c. 1480–90

Formal Qualities

• Highly detailed linework

Iconography

• St. Anthony tested by demonic temptations

Social-Historical

• Early example of masterful printmaking

• c. 1482

• Oil on panel

Formal Qualities

• Packed with fantastical, nightmarish creatures

Iconography

• Christ as Judge above

Social-Historical

• Reflects late medieval obsession with sin, punishment, and moral reform