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Boise State University, (2018) Gender Equity Center, Retrieved from: https://genderequity.boisestate.edu/lgbtqia/ . Last accessed 9^th May ,2018.

 

CHERNEY, I.D., KELLY-VANCE, L., GLOVER,K. , RUANE, A. & RYALLS, B.O. (2003) The Effects of Stereotyped Toys and Gender on Play Assessment in Children Aged 18-47 Months, Educational Psychology, 23:1, 95-10

Church of England, The (2017) Valuing All Gods Children, challenging homophobic, biphobic and transphobic bullying, The Church of England Education Office, Retrieved from , www.churchofengland.org/education. Last accessed 17^th May,2018.

Connolly, J. (2014) Girls Boys and Science Toys, TEDx Talks, Retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mTkJo0giF0Y. Last Accessed 15^th May,2018.

 

Dearden,L. (2018). UK's refusal to grant gender-neutral passports could be ruled 'unlawful' by High Court. Available: https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/gender-neutral-passports-court-case-judge-high-court-legal-a8311271.html. Last accessed 18^th May 2018.

Educate and Celebrate (2017). Creating Gender Neutral Schools. Available: http://www.educateandcelebrate.org/creating-gender-neutral-schools/. Last accessed 19th May 2018.

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Francis, B. (2010) Gender, toys and learning, Oxford Review of Education, 36:3, 325-344.

 

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Jones-Bodie, A. (2016) Let's go toy shopping! Exploring early anticipatory socialization for careers and gender expectations, Communication Teacher, 30:2, 57-6

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Li, R.Y.H & Wong. W.I.,(2016), Gender-Typed Play and Social Abilities in Boys and Girls: Are They Related?, Springer Science and Business Media New York.

 

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Shutts, K., Roben, C. & Spelke, E. (2013). Children's Use of Social Categories in Thinking About People and Social Relationships. Journal of Cognition and Development, 14(1), 35-62.

 

 

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In British culture, often before children are born, they are labelled as a “boy” or a “girl” based on their biology and expected to act and dress to suit their sex. West & Zimmerman (1987) discuss the complexity of sex and gender, and draw on Jaggar, arguing that we determine the “sex” of a person based on their anatomical makeup: their genitalia, or the types of chromosomes they have. However, they then go on to consider how it is possible for an individual to have male genitalia, but chromosomes inconsistent to this and vice-versa (p.128). Further explaining this complexity, the World Health Organisation (WHO, 2018) explain male and female differentiation as complex and wide ranging: whilst most females have XX chromosomes and males have XY chromosomes, many people are born with variations of these chromosomes. Considering these points, this suggest that sex and gender may not be as clearly categorised as simply “male” and “female”. Further to this, the WHO draws on cultures around the world (e.g. North American Natives), which see gender as a spectrum rather than categorically male or female, showing how perspectives on gender differ across cultures. In determining the role of gender in society, both West et al. (1987) and the WHO explains gender as a social construct, with West & Zimmerman arguing that people enact these “gender roles”, which society has constructed for them, throughout their lives (1987, p.128).

Across continents, the damaging effects of these societal gender roles and stereotypes manifest in the following ways: 

·         Girls are labelled as physically weaker than boys hence vulnerable and restricted to being modest, submissive and requiring protection;

·         Boys are labelled as strong, often encouraged to be brave, tough and aggressive;

·         Boys are perceived as facing risk of violence, suicide and substance abuse;

·         Girls are encouraged to cover up, and dress, sit or “act appropriately” or be “ladylike”;

·         Boys are perceived as predators, who sexually objectify women and prey on vulnerabilities;

·         Girls are not free to look at or talk with their male counterparts: families are stigmatised through “dishonourable” female behaviour towards males;

·         Girls are subject to body shaming, sexual, self and peer objectification: periods and breast development are seen to increase pregnancy risk and sexual decision-making; therefore, independence is restricted when a female reaches puberty. Female body parts are often scrutinised and judged by both males and females;

·         And there is often stigma around male-female friendships.

(Based on results of data analysis from the Global Early Adolescence Study (GEAS) by Mmari et al.2017, p.5-10)

As discussed, not all people fit into gendered definitions categorically, therefore, the societal marginalisation of people into a gender category from birth brings great pressure to conform to these gender roles. These pressures clearly have a huge impact on the child’s social and emotional development through pressure to behave a certain way, conforming to ideas masculinity or femininity. Stigmatisation often occurs if girls or boys push the boundaries of gender norms, expressing traits of the opposite sex (Smith, 2014). Lane et al. (2017), West & Zimmerman (1987), and Mmari et al.(2017) voice their concerns around pressures for both genders to conform to gender norms with girls becoming more sexualised (O’sullivan,Meyer-Bah Burg &Watkins, as cited by Mmari et al.,2017), and restricted in their independence once they hit puberty, and boys being encouraged to be tough, aggressive, and afforded more independence.  These stigmatisations can influence both sexes leading to sexual violence, child marriage, pregnancy and STIs (Ricardo et.al, as cited by Mmari et al.,2017), often forcing girls to leave school early and encouraging boys to become involved in physical violence and increased mortality concerns through risk taking behaviour or suicide (Paton et al. as cited by Mmari et al.,2017). 

Gender roles feed into the child’s academic attainment and career opportunities through child exposure to gender orientated toys, media and clothing. Additionally, they are ingrained in our language: often casual comments such as "man up", "I need two strong boys to help me" and "females are not very good at sport" along with pet names like "love", and "mate" can enforce gender segregation (Institute of Physics Report, 2015). Girls clothing is often pink with slogans such as “princess” or “pretty in pink” and boy’s wear slogans like “hero” and “tough guy” (Abdelmoneim, 2017). Toys are often segregated, with girl’s toys in the form of domestic goods (cooking sets), pretty dolls and prams (often coloured pink), whereas boy’s toys are often manipulative construction sets and connective puzzle pieces, mainly coloured blue (Connolly, 2014; Jones-Bodie, 2016 p.59; Abdelmoneim, 2017; Li & Wong, 2016). All of the above affects development from an early age (Jones-Bodie, 2016). Boys, for example, through exposure to masculine toys, develop better visual-spatial awareness and fine motor skills (Connolly, 2014; Linn & Petersen, Voyer et al., as cited by Li&Wong,2016). Girls, however, lack in visual-spatial awareness through less exposure to such problem-solving toys (Levine et al. as cited by Li & Wong,2016 p.400). Further, Li and Wong (2016) discuss how the prevalence of toys aimed at females reinforce the homely, child bearing stereotype in girls that clearly encourage the feminine gender role. However, they also encourage growth in social skills and nurturing behaviour by fostering care taking roles and harmonious play with others (p.406). Whilst boys’ toys can encourage visual-spatial development, they often encourage violent play (e.g. toy soldiers) and competition. Lack of exposure to toys that encourages harmonious play with others and develop social-skills mean that boys do not develop these qualities in the same way the girls toys do(p.400,406). Toys, clothing and language have powerful implications for how children perceive their own roles, skills and abilities and clearly affect child development (Jones-Bodie, 2016; Li &Wong, 2016). 

 

Further, Francis (2010) found that toys aimed at boys were likely to develop technological and scientific knowledge, whilst toys aimed at girls, again, encouraged the care-giving roles and potentially influences curriculum preferences in children (p.339). Whilst this was a small-scale study, it reinforces the findings of James-Bodie and Li & Wong. Feeding into career and education, many toys are suggestive of gender appropriate jobs (Jones-Bodie, 2016), for example: boys playing with building blocks or fire trucks, may imagine a future as a builder or fireman, and girls playing with toys that encourage care taking roles may see themselves in such roles in the future, like nursing or teaching. As discussed, the toys and clothes children are given, and the language we use, encourages a sense of self identity and development of certain skills, therefore, it is logical that curriculum preference for the child fits with these skills and identities. 

 

 

In 1987, West & Zimmerman stated that we cannot stop “doing gender” or enacting such gender specific roles that limit our potential in life as they are so ingrained in our culture through the categorisation of men and women in such roles. At the time, West & Zimmerman called for a societal “overhaul”: an institutional, cultural change to reconceptualise gender and abolish these oppressive gender roles (p.147). Of course, we have seen elements of change since their literature in 1987; in modern times, we see these societal norms being questioned through the celebration of gay pride and the diverse use of the acronym LGBTIA (Lesbian, Gay, Queer, Transgender, Intersex, Asexual), with increasing number of people identifying with these terms (Boise State University, 2018). Although controversial, terms like these extend the boundaries of the traditional idea of gender and sexuality as male and female, straight or gay. So too does the rejection of gendered stereotypes by The Church Of England (2017), urging people not to stigmatise children based on their gender, sexuality or for experimenting out-with gender norms. Recently in the UK, reforms allowed for those wishing to officially change their gender to do so more easily, without a medical diagnosis (Government Equalities Office & Justine Greening, 2017), and currently, the government debates the possibility of gender neutral identities, with campaigners showing a rise in support for this cause (Dearden, 2018). It is pertinent that there has been a change in social perspective regarding the definition of gender. Further to this, and since the Equality Act (2006), schools are required to show how they seek to abolish discrimination and gender inequality. The Standards for Registration (GTCS, 2012) explicitly urge teachers to commit to inclusivity towards gender, gender identity and sexual orientation, and the Getting It Right For Every Child policy (Scottish Government, 2012) encourages celebration of diversity, making this a key issue for schools and teachers in Scotland.

Lane et al. argue that schools, parents, caregivers, environment, peers and media can contribute to the child’s perspective on gender from a very early age (Global Early Adolescent Study, as cited by Lane et al.,2017, p. S10-S11; Mmari et al. 2017). However, in consultation with the Scottish Curriculum for Excellence (Scottish Executive, 2004), the first consideration of gender identity and sexual diversity appears at second level in the benchmarks for health and wellbeing (HWB 2-44a, 2-47a,2-47b). Second level is generally introduced to children between the age of 9-12 years old and extends through third and fourth level as the child experiences puberty. Comparing Weinraub, et al. (1984) and Shutts et al.’s (2013) studies suggests that at two years old, gender roles, although recognised by children, are not as well ingrained as they are by the age of 3 years old. Further, Lane et al. argue that by the time children reach the age of 10-14 years, these roles are firmly ingrained and enacted, meaning that children already feel pressure to conform to them. Clearly, if teachers are to play their part in influencing equity and equality relating to gender (Tasner & Gaber, 2017), as encouraged in the Standards for Registration and by the Equality act, work must begin much earlier to tackle gender stigmatisation and segregation and minimise its damaging effects. At the transition into early level - home to nursery- educators have an opportunity to teach both child and parent about the powerful role of gender in child development and promote gender acceptance and positivity both in the nursery and at home (Smith, 2014). Encouraging language and clothing that is non-gender deficit, and the use of toys that promote social, kinaesthetic, visual-spatial awareness in both boys and girls, provide all sexes with the same opportunities, regardless of their perceived gender.

Of course, discussion of gender related issues can be controversial: as discussed, gender roles are societal norms. However, there are simple steps that educators can take to encourage positive change. Being a controversial topic, it is important to handle this topic with care and avoid shaming or stigmatising those who have strong gendered views, instead, educating people about the benefits of de-gendering society. Zero Tolerance (2013) outlines steps that educators can take in de-gendering their school and wider community, and further steps are outlined in the resources attached to this information pack.

 

1.      Work with parents and colleagues to raise awareness:

 

·         Raise awareness through discussion of gender stereotypes with colleagues and parents.

·         Raise your own awareness, by becoming aware of gender stereotypes acknowledging how you may conform to or promote gender stereotypes and influence children’s behaviour.

 

2.      Change your practice and work with children and parents to promote change at home:

 

·         Consider your use of language, practicing non-gendered dialogue and promote this in children, colleagues and adults.

·         Consider how toys and games are packaged and encourage all children to play with a range of toys.

·         Consider which books are available to children, ensure that a range of books challenge gender stereotypes by including some books that have female heroes for example.

·         Create your own storylines through play and drama that challenge gender stereotypes and involve children in considering how to do this.

·         Assure children that it is ok to experiment with traditionally “opposite sex” activities (e.g. girls playing in the mud, and boys dressing as princesses), and model these things yourself.

·         Consider the environment: avoid segregating male and female groupings, and consider colour when decorating areas of the class, e.g avoid using pinks in the kitchen area, and blue in the construction area. Consider placing build your own kitchen sets or making dolls in the technologies corner.

·         Play games involving gendered and un-gendered role-play to expand children’s ideas of gender.

 

3.      Become active in societal change by addressing gender issues politically:

 

·         Sign petitions, join campaigns, write letters and discuss the issues with shops and suppliers to promote de-gendering.

·         Involve children, parents, colleagues and the wider public in this activism.

Zero Tolerance (2013)

Clearly, small steps can be made to break down the gendered roles that force children to conform. As teachers, it is our responsibility to work together with parent, child and society to give each child the best possible opportunity, regardless of their gender.