Early Childhood Development by Ismah Nisa

Introduction

20346647 — 2021-10-14 17:31:47 UTC

In this assignment, there will be a discussion regarding what childhood is, how childhood is constructed and how childhood has changed over time. There will also be mentions of different theorists who studied childhood and its social construction. Some of these theorists that will be discussed are, Pavlov, Skinner, Postman, Piaget and Vygotsky.
Furthermore, there will be a discussion regarding Frank Field and Graham Allen's review on the importance of early childhood development. After this, there will be mentions of different theorists who studied childhood and its social construction. Some of these theorists that will be discussed are, Pavlov, Skinner, Postman, Piaget and Vygotsky. After this section, there will be a discussion about the inequalities of childhood, then there will be a section about brain development and how the brain slowly develops and forms in the foetus and also after when the baby is born.
Next, it will move on to more detail regarding pre-natal processes such as the zygote and embryo forming stages. Lastly, there will be a section about the different internal and external factors which affect child development.

Pavlov and Skinners Theories

20346647 — 2021-10-15 13:37:01 UTC

Another perspective of childhood development and learning is through the work of theorists Pavlov and Skinner. Pavlov's work is regarding classical conditioning. He used dogs to test if they salivate by conditioning them to think they will receive food by ringing a bell and then the dogs would think that whenever a bell is rung, they will be given food. This theory is shown in childhood development through behavioural therapy, for example, if a child is behaving well then he will receive a sticker. The child knows that in order to get a sticker then he must be well behaved. this is based on stimulus and response.
Skinners work is regarding operant condition. Skinner believed that children's behaviour can be changed by positive and negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement is used in the classroom today as teachers can use this to encourage children to do well again next time and an example of this is by praising children after they do a good piece of work. This encourages the child to work harder and feel appreciated that they did some good work and they want to do the same thing again next time (How the Work of Pavlov Influenced Education, 2013).

Piaget's theory

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Piaget believes that there are four stages of cognitive development and if a person goes through all of them successfully then they have reached complete human intelligence. The first stage is sensorimotor stage which is from birth to two yrs old. 'Piaget chose to call this stage the 'sensorimotor' stage because it is through the senses and motor abilities that infants gain a basic understanding of the world around them' (Cherry, 2019).
The second stage is the preoperational stage from age two to seven. This is when the child begins to use symbolic expressions. They can not use logic to think and understand but instead whatever they see they will believe it as they see it. They also imagine themselves to be different roles and think they are really another person. Toddlers often pretend to be people they are not (e.g. superheroes, policeman), and may play these roles with props that symbolize real life objects. Children may also invent an imaginary playmate (Mcleod, 2018).
The third stage is the concrete operational stage which is from ages 7 to 11. This is when the child begins to understand the logic behind how things work. The brain is developed to rearrange structures such as in maths, they will know that if two numbers are added together it will give this answer and if the sum is reversed then it will give them the first amount. They can logically process this information and think about different things from others point of view to a certain extent, they know that if they behave badly then they will have to face the consequences and the same for good actions, they will get rewarded. This helps the child think about their actions and know what the results of things could be.
The fourth stage is the formal operational stage that is from age 12 onwards. 'By approximately 12 years of age, adolescents enter the formal operational stage that takes them into adulthood. Emerging abstract thought and hypothetical reasoning mark this stage of cognitive development' (Picture Perfect Playgrounds, 2022).

Neil Postmans theory

20346647 — 2021-10-20 10:52:17 UTC

The constructs of childhood are the different theories of what different theorists think about how childhood is formed and how children learn. One theorist is Neil Postman. He believed that ‘how we communicate strongly influences the ideas we communicate and this eventually makes up the contents of our culture’ (Schubert,2005).
He strongly believes that childhood does not exist but instead children should be working and are like young adults.
Postman highlights that in the middle ages when education was only for those who could afford it, children had less literacy knowledge in comparison to adults therefore there was a difference in adults and children. However now, as time goes on and technology is improving, children are learning more which Postman believes it distinguishes the difference between adults and children. He thinks this because children are not more literate and speaking same to adults (Thompson, 2011).

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LH4TRJ1oAnA

What is Childhood?

20346647 — 2021-10-20 11:43:12 UTC

What is childhood?

According to (Merriam-Webster, 2021), 'childhood is the state or period of being a child' and also can be described as 'the early period in the development of something'.
Childhood is the time a child goes through as he learns and develops his physical, cognitive, emotional and social stage. During this time, the child will gain attachment with their care giver if they receive the correct care and love from a young age.
Childhood is the time for children to play freely and be creative. They use their imagination to do fantasy play and make up different roles. They enjoy exploring by playing outdoors and with animals and insects. They engage in physical play in nursery and school.

How is childhood constructed?

Many theorists believe childhood is a social construction as childhood are influenced by the society they live in. Depending on where a child lives and which people he grows up with, the child is influenced by their behaviours, the way they talk and treat each other and what things are expected of them as to be the norm of the society. Societies have different things they are expected to do and how they are expected to behave and this varies to where each person grows up. Phillipe Aries believes 'that in the Middle Ages (the 10th to the 13th century) ‘the idea of childhood did not exist’ – children were not seen as essentially different to adults like they are today'. (Thompson, n.d.)
He claims that the reason for this is because between the 10th and 13th century, paintings show children would be dressed similarly to adults and there were no laws in regards to address adults and children separately. Children would so the same work as adults so there was not much differentiation in them. It was part of the norm of the society at that time that children worked from a very young age.

EYFS- review of childhood

The EYFS framework is based on the point that children should be support in seven main areas of learning and development in order for them to achieve the best quality of childhood learning. It is encouraged that they are supported throughout their school years by following the EYFS framework as this is the time when children can reach their potential by play and games (Importance of EYFS in Children's Progress - Edsys, 2016).
The seven areas are;

communication and language
physical development
personal, social and emotional development
literacy
mathematics
understanding the world
expressive arts and design (Early years foundation stage, 2021)

To promote the EYFS framework in early years settings, one way is by challenging children to encourage their learning. This can be done by play and having creative tasks set. Practitioners and school teachers must understand and observe the childs development by listening to the childs interests and then plan according to the childs interests and level of understanding. Gradually, when the child is progressing, the teacher can introduce new work and vocabulary.

Children's Act (2004)

The aim of this act is 'to ensure and provide the best levels of care and protection. The interests of children are paramount in their welfare and safeguarding, and anyone working with children has this responsibility' (What is the Children Act 2004? | iHASCO, 2020). One of the principles of the Children's Act (2004) is 'help achieve economic stability for the future of children' which will allow children to have higher chances of quality learning and development in school. If they are given support to the best of ability in their younger years then this allows them to do better in their learning. This includes ensuring children are eating healthy so can play well and explore new things. It also includes a safe environment so they are not at any risk of any harm or abuse. Think links to Maslow's hierarchy of needs which is also known as the humanistic approach as Maslow believes that if 5 basic needs are met then a person can reach self-actualisation and reach their goal. These basic needs are physiological, safety, love, esteem and self-actualisation. Looking at the safety factor, 'Once people’s physiological requirements are met, the next need that arises is a safe environment. Our safety needs are apparent even early in childhood, as children have a need for safe and predictable environments and typically react with fear or anxiety when these are not met'. (Hopper, 2020). This theory was tested by two researchers 'Louis Tay and Ed Diener looked at data from over 60,000 participants in over 120 different countries. They assessed six needs similar to Maslow’s: basic needs (similar to physiological needs), safety, love, pride and respect (similar to esteem needs), mastery, and autonomy' (Hopper, 2020).
By carrying this test out, it showed that for well being to be achieved, these basic needs of love and safety need to be met first as they support a person to grow mentally and be able to develop good relationships such as with parents, teachers and school mates. This is overall helping them progress well in their childhood.

Childhood Around The World: Australia

20346647 — 2021-10-20 18:42:07 UTC

Childhood education in Australia is similar the United Kingdom. School is compulsory just as it is in the UK. They have a primary and secondary school however there are three types of schools: Catholic schools, government schools and independent schools.
Children are taught survival skills of how to live outdoors and fight off wildlife. They will also be taught how to light fires and set up camps. This is very different to the education system in Britain as it is not needed for children to learn these skills because there child here do not see wildlife in their everyday life. Children are mostly protected by their caregivers from a young age up until 18 years.

Childhood: in South Africa- Cape Town

20346647 — 2021-10-20 18:59:36 UTC

Attending school in South Africa is compulsory till age 15. The South African Constitution states that everyone has a right to basic education. The government invests in preschool and childcare centres as this is to help support the children's foundation years of learning. The children also have access to sports teams and have good developed curriculums. So far, this is same as how British schools have their school system except in Britain, school is compulsory till the age of 18.
In Britain, there are government funded schools however in South Africa, children have to pay to go school. This affects some families who cannot afford the normal living standards and instead the children have to work because their parents cannot afford the fees, uniform and books. There are '3 underlying themes that influence the ability of children to remain in school, viz. health, policies and structures, and poverty'(Mokoena, Breda and D, 2021). Poverty is a main factor restricting children's learning to develop as they are do not have the financial means to afford a proper education. They have to find work to support their families so they can survive. They start work from childhood. They do not learn literacy and maths skills which affects the economy as a whole as the chances are that these children will not have good payed jobs and therefore affects the development of the country.

Vygotsky's Theory (Socio-cultural perspectives)

20346647 — 2021-11-18 11:41:49 UTC

Vygotsky's socio-cultural theory- he believes in the importance of socialising and human interaction for good learning and development. 'Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of human learning describes learning as a social process and the origination of human intelligence in society or culture. The major theme of Vygotsky’s theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition' (Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory, 2022).

'The concept, zone of proximal development was developed by Soviet psychologist and social constructivist Lev Vygotsky (1896 – 1934)' (Mcleod, 2019).
Vygotsky believed that if a person is in the zone of proximal development meaning he is close to achieving his target work, and provided with correct support and guidance from the right teacher who has the knowledge of the subject then the person will be able to achieve the task. Alongside having a knowledge teacher of the subject, there learner should be provided with social interactions with the teacher who can see if the learner is practicing and learning well and also, educational activities to encourage and support the learning.

Bruner (1966), Wood (1975) and Ross (1976)
These theorists continued the work of Vygotsky and believed culture is significant in learning and language is the root of culture. Therefore individuals learn within their community and culture. An example of this is a child from a poor family, he is most likely to grow up and live a low quality life. Therefore it is agreed that adults in society have an active role in influencing children's learning and development as the adult can aid to make the environment the best for the childs interest. In school settings, this can be achieved by having numerous resources and display work to aid the childs learning and cognitive development. Maths and literacy work displays are a great way to attract childrens to learning and support their memory.

Frank Field's Review on childhood

20346647 — 2021-12-06 21:05:40 UTC

Frank Field's Review
Frank Field believed that for children to have a better childhood and good learning development, more money needs to be funded in their learning from an early age. He believed that if children have a good quality of life from birth onwards, they have better chances of good development than those who are supported by government funding. He suggested the government giving support from early years is better and believed poor lifestyle is not the cause of lack of money however it could be the poor quality of life the person may have had in their childhood. Therefore, it is important to conclude that his main concern was preparing children from birth years and childhood by giving utmost support as possible to prevent a poor quality of life in later life.
(Garboden, 2010).

Sociocultural perspectives; what is society and culture?

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'A society, or a human society, is a group of people involved with each other through persistent relations, or a large social grouping sharing the same geographical or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations' (Society, 2022).
'Culture can be described as the beliefs, behaviours, values and language that make up a persons way of life. This will influence a childs behaviour and way they talk' (Society and Culture Culture Summary & Analysis | SparkNotes, 2022).

Society and culture factors link with Vygoysky's theory of social constructivism because children learn new knowledge and skills through their society as they see and observe hence, the way the people of the community speak and socialise will influence the childs speech and communication skills too.

Developmental Approaches to child development

20346647 — 2021-12-07 15:11:52 UTC

There are 5 main developmental approaches.
Empiricism, nativism, behaviourism, constructivism and social constructivism.

What is empiricism?

Empiricism is receiving knowledge from sensory experiences. This means learning using sense of touch, taste, looking, smell and hear. It is learning through experience.
'Empiricism is the theory that human knowledge comes predominantly from experiences gathered through the five senses. In empiricism, concepts are spoken of as a posteriori or “from the latter” meaning from the experiences' (What is empiricism? - Definition from WhatIs.com, 2022). Alongside having new experiences, children use their senses to explore and discover new things which helps them try and test things which could be out of their comfort zone.
John Locke is a philosopher who created the theory referred as 'Tabula Rasa' which is that when humans are born, they are like a blank slate knowing nothing and then they learn as they grow and experience new things. He also believed that if someone thinks of a new idea, the things that make up that idea must have been seen or happened to the person before in the past. For example if someone makes up a new animal in their head using the eyes and horns of a bull, body of horse and feet as chicken, the person has to have experienced seeing these things in the past (John Locke’s Empiricism: Why We Are All Tabula Rasas (Blank Slates) | Philosophy Break, 2021).

What is nativism?

'The Nativist Theory – Suggests that we’re born with a specific language-learning area in our brain. Nativists believe that children are wired to learn language, regardless of their environment' so it can be said that children are born with the ability to develop language naturally. They will start off by making gurgle sounds and use this to communicate however they form them sounds to meaningful words for example if they are hungry, the mum knows the child is asking for food as they are saying some sounds they have made up and try to construct phrases (How Do Children Learn Language?, 2019). Applying this to a classroom setting, children can enhance their vocabulary by using toys, objects and drawings to express and link what they want to say. They can associate words and objects together to show they understand the meaning of the vocabulary they use.
The theory of language acquisition- Chomsky (1950) is a theorist who believed children have the innate ability of language from birth as the brain has special language-learning mechanisms (THEORIES OF LANGUAGE ACQUISITION, 2022). He believed humans have a learning acquisition device in the brain which helps enable humans to develop the language they hear from birth from their surroundings which is their native language (Lemetyinen, 2012). Opposing this is the theorist B.F Skinner who argues that children learn language based upon behaviour reinforcement because if the teacher is trying to teach a child new words, the teacher will say few words and ask the child to repeat it, if the child gives positive response and is able to say the words without any mistakes then the teacher can praise the child which is positive reinforcement. This will encourage the child to carry on learning and do better however if the child does not say it correctly then the teacher will show negative reinforcement by telling the student it was not correct. Doing so will help receive desired behaviour. (Mcleod, 2018)

What is behaviourism?

Behaviourism is observing actions and learning. Linking this to early childhood development, children look and learn. Right from birth, the child will be seeing their primary caregivers day to day actions and slowly as the child grows, they will copy them actions. This is also done in practice; an example is singing time in nursery, the teacher will start off and do hand actions alongside it then the children will follow on. They will hear new words and sounds and also learn new actions such as tapping and clapping hands.

Behaviourism is of 2 types; classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
Classical conditioning is creating behaviour unconsciously. Pavlov is the theorist who did a experiment using dogs in which a bell was rung and then food was given to the dogs. When the bell would ring, the dogs would salivate because they knew they would receive food. Then the second time, only the bell was rung and no food was given however the dogs were salivating because they associated the sound of the bell with food. The dogs were conditioned and therefore salivate with the bell sound thinking they are going to be given food. This is used for children too in school settings, an example is if a child answers a question wrong in maths class and the teacher humiliates the child in front of his classmates. The child will associate maths lessons with feeling embarrassed.
Operant conditioning is slightly different as this involves rewards and punishment. Skinners idea was that if someone is positively reinforced then they will do the action again and if something is negatively reinforced by punishment then a person will not do that action again.
'Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using animals which he placed in a 'Skinner Box' (Mcleod, 2018). He put a rat in a cage, there was also a lever and some food pieces. When the rat would move about in the cage, the lever would be pressed allowing the rat to get the food. This encouraged positive reinforcement because the rat knew for next time that in order to receive food, he must go on the lever. Then Skinner (1948) tested negative reinforcement by passing a electric current through to the box. When the rat moved about in the box, it accidently knocked the lever so then no electric shock was triggered so the rat learned that to avoid the electric current going through, he must move the lever. Then Skinner put a light on and then pressed the electric current so then the rat learned to press the lever whenever the light would come on to prevent any electric shock.
Positive and negative reinforcement can be used in early childhood development in schools. Teachers use positive reinforcement in the form of rewarding when doing something good. An example of negative reinforcement is by saying to the student if you do not complete a task then you have to stay in at lunch time to finish it off therefore the student will finish the work in class time to avoid having to stay in for lunch time. This encourages him to do a good behaviour.

What is constructivism?

Constructivism can be described as 'observing things and then reflecting back on it to build an understanding of what they learnt. This helps build on previous knowledge and study more about a certain subject' (Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning, 2004). An example of when children do this is if they learn numbers 1 to 10 in class. Then the child will retain this in the mind and play a computer game using numbers. It will help the child remember and learn number in an interactive way (Constructivism as a Paradigm for Teaching and Learning, 2004).
One element of constructivism is that 'learning is a social activity' therefore children can show this within their learning by working in groups. Group activities help children build communication and socialising skills. Children also learn simple rules of how to act within different social groups and around different people. They learn to share, take turns and listen to others when they talk.

What is social constructivism?

Social constructivism is a variety of cognitive constructivism that emphasizes the collaborative nature of much learning' (Social Constructivism | GSI Teaching & Resource Center, 2021). He believed that society make up an idea which becomes the norm of them people within that society so that thing will be accepted by them people. An example is saying pink is for girls and blue is for boys.
Vygotsky strongly believed culture and language are the main factors which affect learning. 'Vygotsky emphasized the role of language and culture in cognitive development. According to Vygotsky, language and culture play essential roles both in human intellectual development and in how humans perceive the world' (Social Constructivism | GSI Teaching & Resource Center, 2021).

Poverty

20346647 — 2021-12-09 16:04:38 UTC

In early childhood, there are different factors which can affect children's learning and development. One factor is poverty. If a family is from a poor background, they may not be able to afford the basic needs for the child. The child may not have hot and nutritional meals which can affect the child's concentration in school.
'Low brain function: Malnourished and exhausted children aren’t able to actively participate in their education, which may lead to poor performance and force them to drop out of school' and this will thereafter affect their home life and lessen the chances they will have further education for better quality of life and get a good payed job (How Does Poverty Impact Child Development | ChildFund Australia, 2019). In some undeveloped countries such as some parts of Africa, children are 'forced to work' and these jobs are often things like farming and agriculture, which involves them carrying out intense physical work even if the child is physically not at the age and has body strength to withhold that much work.
In the article, 'Long-Term Effects of Childhood Nutrition: Evidence from a School Lunch Reform', it highlights 'pupils exposed to the program during their entire primary school period have 3% higher lifetime income'; therefore it proves children who have good meals allow them to perform well in school and have more chances of creating a better life for themselves (the review of economic studies,2021). The study focuses on 'long-term impact of a policy-driven change in childhood nutrition.' This emphasises the need for hot meals and nutritional food for better growth and development in early years. Linking this to theories, it is part of Maslow's hierarchy of needs; he believes there are stages of basic needs and if they are fulfilled then a person can grow physically and mentally. Food and nutrition is part of the psychological needs which is the first section of his theoretical triangle.

Abuse

20346647 — 2021-12-14 12:21:45 UTC

Abuse is another factor which affects childhood development. One of the affect that abuse causes is emotional scars. 'Many children suffer low self-esteem and feelings of guilt, often blaming themselves for the abuse. Children can find it difficult to have trusting relationships and experience loneliness and bullying' (What are the effects of child abuse? - Moray Council, 2022). They may feel suicidal or want to self harm, they may hate themselves for having this life and lose hope to live. Children often have feelings of hopelessness, hate, despair, misery, and rage, sometimes talking about feeling suicidal or self-harm. These children may most likely have formed an attachment with their primary care giver therefore struggle to trust anyone and build a bond with someone. They may not have anyone to speak up to and tell them about the abuse. Attachment links with Bowlby's attachment theory which highlights 'a child has an innate (i.e. inborn) need to attach to one main attachment figure. This is called monotropy. This concept of monotropy suggests that there is one relationship which is more important than all the rest' (Mcleod,2017).

Daniel Pelka
Daniel Pelka, a four years old child was abused and murdered by his parents in 2012. A serious case review was done on his case and it was gathered that none of the agencies who were in contacted suspected that he was being abused and would lead to his death. The agencies had poor communication and awareness of his abuse therefore led to his tragic death (Rogers, 2013).
'Daniel’s presentation of scavenging for food and excessive eating when he found some, linked to weight loss, was rare in a child and assumptions were then too readily made that his problems were medically based' (Rogers, 2013). This was one of the reasons why practitioners did not raise any awareness about his hunger and weight loss as they thought it was medically based. They did not think he was not given food. Children need food and water for basic needs and good growth. Daniel Pelka was deprived of this.
'It is relatively rare in cases of child abuse that one child is singled out as Daniel was; the apparent good care of the other children appeared to give a false impression that Daniel’s problems were not related to abuse' (Rogers, 2013). Daniels sibling was taken good care of therefore it was not thought for the other child not to be not taken care of which can mistaken the practitioners to ignore little little signs of any marks and bruises.

Physical development

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Physical development includes fine and gross motor skills. Fine skills can be hand eye coordination and using finger tips and getting grip of little items. Gross motor skills are whole bodily motions such as running, jumping and throwing. 'Gross motor skill development involves the large muscles in the arms, legs and torso. Gross motor abilities also form the basis for fine motor skills and relate to body awareness, reaction speed, balance and strength' (Gross motor skills: birth to 5 years | Children's Hospital of Richmond at VCU, 2022).
Arnold Gesell (1925) believed motor development was controlled by the aging process and it can not be supported. This can be argued that it is not correct because children can be supported with learning from different resources and teachers guidance. By looking at Skinners theory, it is understood he believed that children can be conditioned. 'The theory of B.F. Skinner is based upon the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual’s response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment'. Therefore, if children are made to understand that if they do something well they will be rewarded, for example their maths work then they will try their best and hope for a reward (Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner) - InstructionalDesign.org, 2022).

Physical growth is influenced by the following genetic factors; body size, eye colour, facial features, hair (type and colour) and complexion.
Exercise and growth is also part of physical development. Children need to be active and be involved in sport games to help them grow and keep them healthy. P.E lessons in school are vital to help support childrens fitness. It encourages them to play outdoors more often and live a active lifestyle.

Cognitive development

20346647 — 2021-12-15 23:31:59 UTC

Cognitive development is developing skills, knowledge and the construction of though processes. Relating this to childhood development, 'Cognitive development means how children think, explore and figure things out' (Help Me Grow MN, 2022).
Piaget's theory of cognitive development links in this factor because he believes intellectual growth happens through adapting to the environment. 'He attempted to document the stages of cognitive development by observing the memory processes of children' (Kurt, 2020).
On the other hand, Jerome Bruner believes learning happens when the learner selects information and using their thought processes to create a hypothesis about the information. 'In his view, discovering information was a more effective way of learning than just being told by a teacher' (Editor, 2022).
He also believed children learn best when the learning is structured which will help the child take in and process the information better. He also adds that if learners are given extra intervention and information then the learner can go beyond his learning and explore more knowledge.

Social and emotional development

20346647 — 2021-12-15 23:33:25 UTC

Social and emotional development is about children developing relations with whoever they are in contact with such as carers, teachers, siblings and friends. Sometimes, it can be the case that some children may find it difficult to understand their emotions and express their feelings to words. As children's circles of relations widen, they will see and observe others behaviours and how they express feelings which will allow them to understand others emotions. They will observe why people behave they way they do such as what emotion would someone show when sad, happy or excited.
John Bowlby (1958) studied emotional development in children. 'Bowlby (1958) proposed that attachment can be understood within an evolutionary context in that the caregiver provides safety and security for the infant' (Mcleod, 2017). He also agreed that children are already pre-programmed to form attachments and they have an innate need to form bonds with an attachment figure. There are different reasons why some children may have insecure attachment with their caregiver. One reason is if there are frequent changes in primary care. The mother of the child may not want the baby and so the grandparents may look after the baby so it builds a close bond with the grandparents. Another reason is if the baby is put in an incubator then the mother may feel loss of attachment with the baby as cannot spend time and hold the baby. Another reason could be disability. The mother may not have the knowledge regarding the baby's disability so may not know how to support their special needs. They may not be aware of the services to contact for extra support.

The Factory Act (1833)

20346647 — 2021-12-16 09:35:28 UTC

The Factory Act (1833) was made to improve the working conditions of the workers. It also made it clear what ages it is safe to work. 'This wide-ranging and detailed Act consolidated all previous legislation relating to working conditions in factories and other industrial premises' (Gillard, 2022). The Factory Act (1833) established certain hours of work for children, '48 hours was set for those aged 9 to 13, limited to eight hours a day; and for children between 13 and 18 it was limited to 12 hours daily' (The 1833 Factory Act, 2022). It was made compulsory for children under 13 to attend school two hours each day (The 1833 Factory Act, 2022). This helped children receive their education too as well as going to work.

Sweden

20346647 — 2021-12-19 15:27:48 UTC

In Sweden, school is compulsory by the age of 6 however in England, it is compulsory at the age of 5.

'The grading in the Swedish school system was also updated in 2011, to a scale with six grades from A to F, where A to E are passing grades, and F represents a failing grade' (The grading scale in the Swedish educational system, 2022). This is same in England as schools in England use grades A to F.

In Sweden, there are four types of activities to facilitate for children up to age 12. The first type is having pedagogical care which is family day care of practitioners who look after children in their own homes for children whose parents work. The next facility is open preschool which is for parents who stay at home and the teachers work to set activities for the children to do at home. The third type of activity is leisure time centres, they are 'educational group facilities, operating during the times of the day and year when schools are closed for enrolled children whose parents are working or studying or for children who are in need of the facilities' (Early childhood education and care - Eurydice - European Commission, 2021). The fourth facility given is 'care at uncomfortable time' (Early childhood education and care - Eurydice - European Commission, 2021). In the town/city a person living, the local governing group are responsible to provide care for children and families at times when leisure centres are not open.
In Sweden, there is no school uniform rule set for children. The academic school year starts in August and finishes in June which is different in England where the academic year begins in September till July.

The zygote, embryo and foetus

20346647 — 2021-12-20 16:16:30 UTC

First is the period of the zygote. 'A zygote, also known as a fertilized ovum or fertilized egg, is the union of a sperm cell and an egg cell' (Cherry, 2021).
The zygote time lasts about 4 days in which time it divides from a single cell to multiple cells which is called blastulation. The zygote single cell has 46 chromosomes inside it; 23 from the egg cell and 23 from the sperm cell.
Next, after the zygote phase is the period of the embryo. The embryo starts to develop and grow, the hands, toes, face structure and ears start to form. This takes up to seven weeks (Wakim and Grewal, 2021).
Then after the embryo, it is the period of the foetus. This begins in the 9th week. During this time, the limbs will slowly begin to grow more and become more visible. The arms and legs will start to move sometimes. The sex organs will appear too depending on which gender it will be. Around the 16th week, the toes and fingers will be completely developed and then by the 24th week, the internal organs such as heart and lungs are developed (Prenatal Development | Boundless Psychology, 2022).

1-3 months of pregnancy

20346647 — 2021-12-20 20:40:11 UTC

The first trimester of pregnancy is the time for the egg cells to form into a foetus to then develop the limbs and feature's further.
1st month- Once the egg has been fertilized by the sperm reaching the egg cell, 'a water-tight sac forms around it, gradually filling with fluid. This is called the amniotic sac, and it helps cushion the growing embryo'. In addition to this, the placenta also grows which is a round organ attached from mothers stomach to the foetus and food nutrients reach the foetus. During this period, the limbs begin to form, the mouth and jaw area forms, the ear, hands and toes also slowly start to take shape however very little. The size of the foetus is about the size of a rice grain at this point (Fetal development: Month-By-Month Stages of Pregnancy, 2020).

2nd month- By the second month, the limbs have been growing more from little bud like shapes into slightly more recognisable features. The folds of the ear also start to show. The sensory organs which are the brain, spinal cord and other tissues which have control of the body have also formed. The cartilage changes to bone too.

3th month- Reaching the third month, the hands, arms, feet and toes are now complete so the fingernails and toenails begin to take shape. By the end of the third month, the foetus is complete and the organs are also completely formed however are still developing for them to be functional (Fetal development: Month-By-Month Stages of Pregnancy, 2020).

3-6 months of pregnancy

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During this second trimester, there are many new changes for the foetus. The eyelids slowly begin to open and eyelashes and eyebrows have also formed too. The hair on the head also grows. 'A creamy white substance (called vernix caseosa, or simply vernix) begins to appear on the fetus and helps to protect the thin fetal skin' (The Second Trimester, 2022).
This substance sometimes stays on the skin after birth too but goes after some time.

6-9 months of pregnancy

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In the 6th month of pregnancy, it is roughly the 26th to 28th week period. During this time, the foetus will begin to make more movements such as kicking its feet, 'baby's eyelids can partially open and eyelashes have formed. The central nervous system can direct rhythmic breathing movements and control body temperature' (Fetal development: What happens during the 3rd trimester?, 2020).
By the 29th week the foetus can also stretch and kicks more actively and more often.
By the 30th week, the foetus weights approximately about 3 pounds. Also, the head hair has grown more. Going onto the 31st and 32nd week, 'the foetus weight increases more to about weigh 3 3/4 pounds (1,700 grams)' and the height is approximately '11 inches (280 millimeters) long from crown to rump' (Fetal development: What happens during the 3rd trimester?, 2020).

Internal factors

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There are different factors which can affect women in the prenatal period. One factor is nutrition. The mother should be eating healthy and nutritional foods as the nutrients of the food are fed to the baby through the umbilical cord and placenta. If the mother has a poor diet then the baby will not be receiving the good nutrients it needs to develop healthily. A good diet should include proteins, carbohydrates, fruit and veg and dairy too. This will help the mother have a variety of foods in the diet to give good nutrients to the child.
Another factor which affects prenatal development is illness and disease. 'Subsequent studies have shown that maternal diseases like depression and anxiety, epilepsy, asthma, anemia and metabolic disorders, like diabetes, are able to determine alterations in growth and fetal development' (Capra, Tezza, Mazzai and Boner, 2013).

Drugs, alcohol and smoking are also have a major impact on prenatal development, the side affects can affect the mother and child too. The affects of having alcohol whilst pregnant are 'premature birth, low birth weight, impacting on the physical and mental development of the child, a condition known as Foetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)' (Alcohol, smoking and drugs in pregnancy, 2022).
'Alcohol passes to the baby in small amounts in breast milk. The milk will smell different to the baby and may affect their feeding, sleeping or digestion. The best advice is to avoid drinking shortly before a baby’s feed' (Alcohol, smoking and drugs in pregnancy, 2022).

For this reason, it is best for women to not drink during pregnancy to not increase any risk of having a miscarriage.

Stress is another factor which affects prenatal development. 'Maternal stress has been associated with increased rates of infant mortality, low birthweight and preterm birth, all of which may have long term consequences for health and development throughout childhood to adulthood' (Stress and Pregnancy, 2022).

How does the foetus's brain form?

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At in the beginning stage of pregnancy, the neural tube forms. The neural tube is that which forms into the babys brain and spinal cord (Spina bifida, 2020). Then at 'around the 6th week, there are now three main parts of the brain; forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain' (De Bellefonds, 2021). After this, during the 7th week, 250,000 neurons form in the brain and electrical impulses start activating which lasts until the 21st week of pregnancy (Flo health, 2022). In the first trimester of pregnancy, the babys brain is formed approximately 10 percent in comparison to the baby's body weight. By the 10th week of pregnancy, the basic brain formation begins; and looks like 'a small, smooth structure' (De Bellefonds, C., 2021).
By the third trimester, the brain has formed much more as the ridges of the cerebrum begin to show and now is tripled in size.
Alcohol is a major factor which impacts brain development to the foetus's brain. It can cause fetal alcohol syndrome which gives high chance of the baby having sever brain damage (Flo health, 2020).

External factors

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One example of an external factor which can affect prenatal development is death of a close friend/relative. Upon the death, it causes grief and sadness and the mother may have depression from this. She may not want to go outside and interact, she may not want to do any work and may have to take time off work.
Another factor is abuse. Verbal abuse and physical abuse is both included as they can mentally affect the brain. It can make the mother feel useless and as though of no worth. During the pregnancy, she may feel upset and want to talk to somebody about the abuse however may not have someone whom she can trust. Her partner may be the one who is abusing her. She may feel shame telling her friends and family and therefore not telling anyone, the sadness and anxiety will build up inside.

Internal factors

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There are many internal factors which affect postnatal development of a child. One factor is basic needs. This entails poverty. If the family is from a poor background, then the parents may not be able to afford to give the child nutritious food. They may live off packaged, canned and processed foods. This can cause the child to not grow to the best possible. The child may lack vitamins and minerals. They may feel tired at school and may not be able to concentrate in lesson. Poverty also affects the house. The house where the child and family lives may be too cold and damp so this links into external factors too.
Another internal factor is chronic illness. If the family has history of chronic illnesses, then there can be a chance the child also gets the disease too. An example of chronic illness is diabetes. If the grandparents have diabetes and the parents too, then there are chances the child may have it in the future.
Another internal factor is sleep. If a child does not have enough sleep on a regular basis then they will be able to grow to optimal state. Sleep helps the child grow, it also allows child to feel active and fresh so they can play well.
Another factor which can have an internal impact on postnatal development is hormones. It is normal for hormones to work in a timely manner for example, girls have monthly periods and different hormones secrete at different stages however hormonal imbalances can also happen which can cause birth defects, diseases and behavioural problems too (FirstCry Parenting, 2020). Some children's hormones may be imbalanced therefore they may feel emotional a lot of the time and not know why this is happening. This can affect their school life as well as home life. They may not be able to control their moods.

External factors

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There are many different external factors which affect postnatal development. One factor is family influences. If a family gives a child time and shows love then the child will feel loved and encouraged to do well in whatever they do. They will work well and know they have supportive family members. Children whose families are not supportive by not playing with the children and talking to them then this has a negative impact on the child's social skills. The child may not know how to behave properly in front of different people and communicate (FirstCry Parenting, 2020).
Another external factor is parents work. Parents being at work can hinder them to spend quality time with the child. Parents may do extra work shifts so the child may be staying with a friend or grandparents. This affects the child because they may not form an attachment bond with the parents. The child may be more closer to the grandparents and friends as they see them more often. Playing with children and having quality time such as playing games and sitting and chatting helps the child build an emotional connection. Reading books to children before bed and sitting together helps create a emotional bond too.

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There are 4 main sections of the brain. The first part is called the frontal lobe. This functions as helping with voluntary movement, expressing language and behaviour and also for cognitive skills which including organising and planning (Brain Map Frontal Lobes | Queensland Health, 2021).

The second part of the brain are the temporal lobes. 'The temporal lobes sit behind the ears and are the second largest lobe'. These lobes function to help 'process auditory information and memory'. The temporal lobes are of 2 parts; the left side is the dominant lobe which helps with language learning and retaining information and the right side known as the non dominant side which is for remembering non verbal information such as musical sounds and rhythms (Brain Map Temporal Lobes | Queensland Health, 2021).

The third part of the brain is the parietal lobes. The parietal lobes have 2 sections; the somatosensory cortex and posterior parietal cortex. The somatosensory cortex controls feeling of pain, pressure and touch whereas the posterior parietal cortex is for attention in terms of through physical touch, one can know there is an object or someone in the environment (Brain Map Parietal Lobes | Queensland Health, 2021).

The fourth part of the brain is called the occipital lobe. This lobe helps with vision, face and colour recognition, distance of objects, movement, and also memory. The occipital lobes are very significant because they work along with the temporal lobes. The temporal lobes take in and retain information and then the occipital lobes help to decode this information by seeing and envisioning the thing (Occipital lobe: Definition, function, and linked conditions, 2020).

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'Allen’s report focuses heavily on the importance of early development and urges the government to take extra measures to ensure that all children, regardless of their background, are socially, cognitively and psychologically ‘school ready’ at the age of five' (Unlocking early intervention: key messages from the Allen Review | IMPOWER, 2011).
His work focuses on getting children ready for school and helping children connect with learning as early as possible. He also believes if the child's parents understand the child better from their birth years then they can emotionally and socially understand the child better and see what interventions the child needs based on the childs individual needs. If the parent figures out the child has some delay in the hearing or could be that the child has delay in understanding when told to do something then the parents can find support for the child at an early stage.
Allen believes 'all parents need to know how to "recognise and respond to a baby's cues, attune with infants and stimulate them from the very start, and how to foster empathy' (Sellgren, 2011).
His aim is to help parents get to know they children well. He believes that those children who have are emotionally stable and socially skilled are more likely to be more productive in creating a better life in the future in comparison to those children whom emotions weren't understood and did not have a close attachment figure to who they can openly talk to.

1-3 months

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After birth, in the first 3 months, babies go through different development stages as they grow and learn.
Physical development- a babies average growth rate in terms of weight for boys and girls is 1 and 1/2 to 2 pounds each month. The average height is growing over 1 inch each month. The head size grows approximately 1/2 inch each month (The Growing Child: 1 to 3 Months, 2022).

Babies also begin to recognise their parents voice when the parents regularly talk and play with the baby. Baby also makes eye contact and smile when they recognise familiar faces. Babies will also cry and make coo noises to communicate what they want. Also during the first 3 months, the baby will follow light, faces, objects and listen to sounds. REF They know when objects are moved in front of them. They also begin to grab toys and try putting to their mouth.
By the end of the 3 months, 'babies are able to raise head and chest when placed on belly and also reach forward to toys put near or over them' (The Growing Child: 1 to 3 Months, 2022).

4-6 months baby development

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Physical development- By 4 months, babies weight gain is double of their birth weight. Babies height and head size continue to grow approximately 1-1.5 inch every month.
Between 4-6 months the baby is growing more and learning to move around more. Babies can sit up for longer with support and then by the 6th month they dont need to lean on something or have someone hold their back.
Babies at this stage can also begin to try reach out for toes when lying on their back (The Growing Child: 4 to 6 Months, 2022).

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What does the EYFS state regarding early childhood development?

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The EYFS has set up a framework which states children must be looked after well and are in a safe environment. The children must be given support in their learning and the teachers and child-minders must set targets to ensure they can support the children to the best optimum.
Regarding learning, the EYFS has set up targets for knowledge and skills that children must achieve before going to reception class. It is also required that teachers make assessments which are used to check up on the childs progress and achievements.
The EYFS states that at different levels of learning, children should be able to listen and respond to questions and comments, ask questions regarding what is being talked about and have one to one conversations. This will show the childs understanding and speech development. (Statutory framework for the early years foundation stage, 2021).

Statutory framework for the early years foundation stage (publishing.service.gov.uk)

Conclusion

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In conclusion, there are different theories which support early childhood development. This padlet also includes the different developmental approaches in child development as they are the major aspects in this subject. There is also a explanation regarding what the EYFS states regarding early childhood development, the 7 areas of development and how teachers can support a child's learning and readiness for school.
There is a review of Frank Field and Graham Allens viewpoints on how children should be nurtured and parented for school readiness. They each have a report about the importance of supporting childrens learning.
There is also mention of what a zygote is, the embryo and what main development takes place in the foetus, prenatal and postnatal development, internal and external factors which impact prenatal and postnatal development.

The ecological model

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Bronfenbrenner (1974) believed that there it is the environment which affects a child and development. He categorised environmental factors into different parts which are: the micro system, mesosystem, exo-system, macrosystem and chronosystem (Argueta, 2018).

Microsystem- the microsystem can be described as the childs home where the immediate and close family members are, the community of where they are involved in, and school (peers).
Mesosystem- this section is the relationship the child forms with the people he lives with, peers, neighbours and community people. An example of this is if the childs parents have friendship with the neighbours. By seeing them often and keeping communication with them, the child may form friendship with the neighbours children too. They may play together and start talking. This is important for the childs social development as the child is expanding his circle and conversing play with them.
Exosystem- this includes having a relationship with another system however it does not directly affect the child. An example of this is if a parent works and has a bad day at work as they may have had an argument, the parent may come home and take anger out at home to the child. The parent may feel tired and annoyed from a bad day however this has a negative impact on the childs development. This is because the child will feel confused and annoyed that the parents work does not have a link to the child.
Macrosystem- The macrosystem can be described as the childs culture and society he has grown up in. It also includes social statues, whether from a poor or wealthy family and ethnicity. Children around the world will have different macrosystems because their environment is of a different culture and background. Third world countries may have more poverty and low social class in comparison to developed countries.
Chronosystem- This includes major life changes such as moving towns, changing schools, divorce of a parent and death of a caregiver. Moving towns and changing schools majorly impacts a childs emotional development because the child may have formed strong bond with the peers at the school and teachers. They may have fit in well with their classmates however when a child moves to another school, they may have to make new friends and see which group they will fit in. They may not feel comfortable with the change of environment and class setting. (Argueta, 2018).

Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory - YouTube