https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv Talha Anwar Chaudhry, Chanwoo Kim, and Jackson Leslie en-us 2022-12-06 09:39:48 UTC 2026-02-23 13:55:21 UTC hello@padlet.com talhachaudhry https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410412057 2022-12-06 09:39:48 UTC https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410412057 talhachaudhry https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410412058 2022-12-06 09:39:48 UTC https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410412058 talhachaudhry https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410412059 2022-12-06 09:39:48 UTC https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410412059 talhachaudhry https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410412060 2022-12-06 09:39:48 UTC https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410412060 talhachaudhry https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410412061 2022-12-06 09:39:48 UTC https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410412061 talhachaudhry https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410412064 2022-12-06 09:39:48 UTC https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410412064 talhachaudhry https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410412065

Research suggests role of cholinergic pathway in AD:

• Cholinergic neurons that innervate the PFC degenerate in AD patients (7)
• ORM increases in AD patients given M1 cholinergic receptor agonists (8)
• M1 receptors increase activation of layer V pyramidal neurons (9)

However, in other studies, M1 receptor overactivation also causes impaired short-term memory (10)

]]> 2022-12-06 09:39:48 UTC https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410412065 talhachaudhry https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410412066 Alzheimer’s disease’s (AD) is the most common form of dementia (1). It is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder, which effects the entorhinal cortex (2) and hippocampus (1).

The symptoms range from memory loss, attention deficits, cognitive dissonance, spatial disorientation, mood disorders, and communication defects (3).

AD is primarily characterized by the neuronal shrinkage due to aggregation of extracellular β-amyloid (Aβ) plaques and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) (1).

Only 5% of AD cases are early-onset, familial AD (FAD) linked to genetics with presenilin (PS) 1 mutations accounting for most of known FAD cases (4). PS1 is a part of the γ-secretase complex, whose hampered proteolytic activity helps to produce Aβ peptides and Aβ intracellular domain (AICD) (4,5). AICD is degraded, however, Aβ causes plaque formation in mutated PS1 mutations. ]]> 2022-12-06 09:39:48 UTC https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410412066 talhachaudhry https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410412067

A) Experimental strategy for measuring effects of artificial upregulation of ET neuron activity using ChR2 on ORM. 

B) Bar plot of delta object recognition index (i.e. time spent with novel objects - time spent with familiar objects) in ADf mice expressing ChR2 in ET neurons of PFC against on and off blue light. Mice spent a statistically significantly (p=0.048) higher time with novel objects than familiar objects in blue light (n=8). 

C) Bar plot of delta object recognition index in ADf mice expressing GFP in ET neurons of PFC against on and off blue light. Mice spent a similar amount of time with novel objects and familiar objects in blue light than no light (n=5). 

]]> 2022-12-06 09:39:48 UTC https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410412067 talhachaudhry https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410412068

A) Experimental strategy for measuring effects of artificial downregulation of ET neuron activity using NpHR on ORM. 

B) Bar plot of delta object recognition index (i.e. time spent with novel objects - time spent with familiar objects) in ADf mice expressing NpHR in ET neurons of PFC against on and off blue light. Mice spent a statistically significantly (p=0.048) lower time with novel objects than familiar objects in blue light (n=8). 

]]> 2022-12-06 09:39:48 UTC https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410412068 talhachaudhry https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410412069

A) Experimental strategy for measuring ET neuronal activity using GCaMP in ADf and WTf mice. 

B) Bar plot quantification of neurons expressing both GCaMP and c-fos in WTf and ADf mice. There is statistically significant (p=0.0008) data suggesting greater colocalization in WTf mice than ADf mice (n=4). 

C) Visualization of c-fos and GCaMP staining. Greater number of neurons co-express GCaMP and c-fos in WTf mice than ADf mice.

*AAV: adeno-associated virus; TM: tamoxifen.

]]> 2022-12-06 09:39:48 UTC https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410412069 talhachaudhry https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410412070

 A) Experimental strategy for measuring acetylcholine’s functional response in ET neuron during NOR. 

B) Fluctuation in ACh2.0 fluorescence levels levels in WTf (n=12) and ADf mice (n=9), with higher ACh2.0 expression percentage change in WTf mice. 

C) Area under curve (AUC) from the plot of WTf (n=12) and ADf (n=9) mice, with statistically significantly (p=0.0120) higher AUC in WTf mice than ADf mice.

*deltaF/F(%) represents percentage change in fluorescence of ACh2.0 per change in time

]]> 2022-12-06 09:39:48 UTC https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410412070 talhachaudhry https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410412071

A) Experimental strategy for measuring effects of artificial upregulation of acetylcholine release at ET neuron terminal using ChR2 on ORM.

B) Bar plot of delta object recognition index (i.e. time spent with novel objects - time spent with familiar objects) in ADc mice expressing ChR2 in cholinergic terminals at ET neurons against on and off blue light. Mice spent a statistically significantly (p=0.028) higher time with novel objects in blue light than no blue light (n=5).

C) Bar plot of delta object recognition index in ADc mice expressing GFP in cholinergic terminals at ET neurons against on and off blue light. Mice spent a statistically significantly (p=0.017) higher time with familiar objects in blue light than no blue light (n=5). 

]]> 2022-12-06 09:39:48 UTC https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410412071 talhachaudhry https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410412072 2022-12-06 09:39:48 UTC https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410412072 talhachaudhry https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410412073 Novel objection recognition (NOR) test to measure ORM (11).

• NOR involves three phases
  • Habituation: Two identical objects placed in front of rodents
  • Training: Switch one object with a novel object
  • Test: Measure time spent of mice with novel object
• Less time mice spent with novel objects indicates impaired ORM (11)

]]> 2022-12-06 09:39:48 UTC https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410412073 talhachaudhry https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410412075

Under the Cre-lox system/AAV, authors induced ChR2 (excitatory channel) and NpHR (inhibitory channel) by adeno-associated virus in ET neurons of ADf and WTf mice and 5xFAD_ChaT-CreER (ADc) and Wild type_ChaT-CreER(WTc) mice (11)

• ChR2 is activated by shining blue (473nm) lazer through fiber optic wire inserted in mice brain using stereotaxic surgery (11):
  • Once activated, it allows positive ions to pump into neurons, causing depolarization and action potential. In cholinergic neurons, it allows release of neurotransmitter acetylcholine
• NpHR is activated by yellow (570nm) lazer through fiber optic wire inserted in mice brain using stereotaxic surgery (11):
  • Once activated, it allows chlorine anions ions to pump into neurons, causing hyperpolarization and inactivity

]]> 2022-12-06 09:39:48 UTC https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410412075 talhachaudhry https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410443334

Previous research suggests loss of dendritic spine density of extra-telencephalic (ET) projections in prefrontal cortex (PFC) in AD patients (6)

• ET neurons are present in the cortical layer V pyramidal neurons of PFC (6)

Correlation of ET dysfunction and short-term memory deficits in AD measured by object recognition memory (ORM)

]]> 2022-12-06 10:10:01 UTC https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410443334 talhachaudhry https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410446433 Previously, underactivation and overactivation of M1 receptors showed impaired ORM in AD mice models. ET neuronal dysfunction in mice also showed ORM impairments. However, there was no direct pathway behind this impairment. Given the past research and to figure out what mechanism caused impairment, and therefore should be focus for AD treatments, Sun et al. hypothesized:

• Acetylcholine upregulates ET neuron activation in the PFC to increase ORM (11)

]]> 2022-12-06 10:13:00 UTC https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410446433 talhachaudhry https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410468009 Sun et al. used 5xFAD mice of Fezf2-CreER and ChaT-
CreER driver line

• 5xFAD mice carry presenilin-1 mutation, most common mutation in hereditary AD patients (4)
  • Makes Sun et al.'s results more generalized to the familial cases of AD
• Fezf2 is used as an ET neuronal marker; ChaT is used as a cholinergic neuronal marker (11)
  • Sun et al. stain the cells by using immunohistochemical staining and antibodies for these markers. 

]]> 2022-12-06 10:33:55 UTC https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410468009 talhachaudhry https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410483573 Sun et al. used 5xFAD mice of Fezf2-CreER and ChaT-
CreER driver line

• CreER (paired with Fezf2 and ChaT) utilizes the CRE recombinase system in presence of tamoxifen to express genes in ET neurons
  • Tamoxifen allows the CRE to move from the cytoplasm of cells into the nucleus and allows the lox system to work. Without tamoxifen, this specially designed CRE system will not allow CRE-lox system to work. This allows the authors more control over their experiment and another set of controls (13).

]]> 2022-12-06 10:48:30 UTC https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410483573 talhachaudhry https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410488213 2022-12-06 10:53:04 UTC https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410488213 talhachaudhry https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410496700 Talha Anwar Chaudhry undertook the introduction and materials and methods section of the presentation and poster. He helped in writing up discussion section from points chosen by Jackson Leslie, and gathering information from the lecture to highlight advantages of optogenetics appraoch. He helped with visualization of the padlet, as well as curation of references and explanation of axis in figures. The future direction and conclusion section was written up by Talha, as well.

Chanwoo Kim took on data curation, summary, and captions of results section. He also proofread and provided input on which figures and results we should be focusing on, as well as set up the draft version of padlet. He was also the one responsible for mentioning general issues with optogenetics that are mentioned in the discussion section's weaknesses.

Jackson Leslie helped in data summary to address the hypothesis. He was responsible for the general discussion sections (significance, analysis of findings) and critiques of the paper. 

Each section included input from other section heads, and final decisions were made when an unanimous decision was reached.]]> 2022-12-06 11:01:58 UTC https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410496700 talhachaudhry https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410501735 Data suggests that there is a direct contact between cholinergic neurons and ET neurons in the pyramidal V neurons of PFC. ET neurons come second in the pathway to the cholinergic neurons as upregulation of ET neurons does not increase acetylcholine, whereas increase in cholinergic activity does increase activity in ET neurons, and thus increases ORM.

In their studies, it was also shown that activation of cholinergic pathway improved locomotion. However, those increases were not paired with activation of ET neurons. This complements the hypothesis that AD is a progressive disease with multiple pathway and that ET neurons are only involved in memory.]]> 2022-12-06 11:07:26 UTC https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410501735 talhachaudhry https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410505260 2022-12-06 11:10:54 UTC https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410505260 talhachaudhry https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410511310 2022-12-06 11:16:43 UTC https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410511310 talhachaudhry https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410518153 Sun et al. used immunochemical staining to look at (11):

• Neuronal activity:
  • GCaMPs — a green fluorescent protein (GFP) bound to calmodulin, whose high expression suggests greater calcium cation intake, and hence activity in the cell
• Expression of channels in specified neurons:
  • mCherry — red, paired with channelrhodopsin (ChR2) or halorhodopsin (NpHR) to look at expression of these channels in ET or cholinergic neurons
• To validate optogenetic channel expression, they stained for specific markers of ET neurons (Fezf2) and cholinergic neurons (ChAT) and merged images
  • Used immunohistochemistry: antibody 1 binds to the antigen, antibody 2 binds to antibody 1, and gives off signal
• As indicators of activity or neurotransmitter concentration:
  • C-fos (violet) for all activated neurons
  • Ach2.0 (green) for measurement of acetylcholine levels in cells.

]]> 2022-12-06 11:23:37 UTC https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410518153 talhachaudhry https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410523338 The greater the age of the mice, the more impaired their novel object recognition test scores. This is because AD is an age-dependent progressive condition. Both a study by Sun et al. (11) and Oakley et al. (12) suggests that 6-month-old 5xFAD mice show the greatest ORM impairment when compared to 2 or 4-month-old mice, which was their rationale for using 6-month-old 5xFAD mice for their studies.]]> 2022-12-06 11:29:05 UTC https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410523338 talhachaudhry https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410669405 This a novel study in which the causational mechanism of ET-cholinergic pathway has been studied and linked with memory loss in AD.]]> 2022-12-06 13:41:25 UTC https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410669405 talhachaudhry https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410669892

• Optogenetics allowed control of channels down to milliseconds due to usage of light. This is important, as previous data on lesion studies in PFC and its links with memory suggests that timing is critical between surgery and NOR measurements, with greater drop in NOR scores as time passes (11).
• Optogenetics is reversible and the inserted channels can be inhibited at different phases of the NOR test. This allowed the authors to look at whether differences in memory in AD patients under the ET-cholinergic pathway were only during the expression stage or encoding and consolidation, as well (11).
• Use of tamoxifen allowed authors more control opportunities, negating the effects of stereotaxic surgery for fiber optic insertion, as well as confounds caused by AAV virus vehicle insertion (13).
• Came up with a causal mechanism, rather than just correlational study due to manipulation of independent variables (activity of optogenetic channels to induce or inhibit action potential in ET or cholinergic neurons).
• Authors use a double-flexed open reading frame CRE system, which allows the inverted gene to stay inverted, as it takes out one of the complemetary lox sites after one inversion due to binding of Cre, which means Cre cannot bind again and reverse the expression of ChR2 and NpHR, allowing for stable and similar expression of these channels in different cells (14). 

]]> 2022-12-06 13:41:44 UTC https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410669892 talhachaudhry https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410671427

• Did not measure whether tau protein differences in mice model affected ORM
  • In the beginning of the experiment, it was measured that increased Aβ burden showed a weak but negative correlation with ORM. Therefore, it could act as a weak confound behind the experimental results and this much shift was accounted for in their results. However, the same was not done with phosphorylated tau proteins, which also characterizes AD pathology and is involved in memory (15).
• Overexpression of amyloid precursor protein (APP) in 5xFAD is artificial
  • This level of APP buildup requires time in humans. Which is why whether sudden increase in APP is the real reason behind significant cholinergic neuron and ET neuron degeneration or if it is normally the case cannot be separated, thus decreasing external validity (11).
• Only studied female 5xFAD mice, who have a more severe amyloid-beta accumulation than male mice (16).
  • This suggests that the experiments have a low generalisation outside of the lab.
• Only looked at ORM expression and not consolidation and encoding, which is done by dorsal hippocampus (17).
  • An important established brain structure involved in memory consolidation is the dorsal hippocampus. This study only focused on cholinergic neuronal connections with the ET neurons and not with hippocampus. Which is why, the suggested pathway may be incomplete with hippocampus coming before ET neurons, as it sends its axons to mPFC, as well. 
  • However, an argument against this is that the authors' significant result differences showing better ORM by increasing cholinergic or ET neuronal activity were only found in the testing phase, and not habituation or training phase, which is when memory is consolidated and hippocampus is involved.
    • But role of hippocampus in the ET-cholinergic pathway would still need to confirmed with future studies.

]]> 2022-12-06 13:42:46 UTC https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410671427 talhachaudhry https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410673421 Authors should measure effects of inhibition and activation of ChR2 and NpHR in the cholinergic neurons on activity levels in the dorsal hippocampus and how it translates to NOR.

They could use retrograde tracing methods to see whether dorsal hippocampus has direct connections to the ET neurons. In retrograde tracing, the tracer is inserted into a region of interest of neurons and it jumps backward from the dendrite of neuron it is injected in to the axon of the neuron connecting to it and hence maps out the connections to that neuron (18).

Expected results: Cholinergic neuronal upregulation increases dorsal hippocampus activation in 5xFAD mice models during the habituation and training phase of NOR. This would suggest that dorsal hippocampus is necessary for ORM memory encoding. Dorsal hippocampus would then also show connections to and send signals directly to the ET neurons, which is why it would be indirectly involved in memory expression. Thus making the ORM pathway in AD be, cholinergic-hippocampus-ET neurons.]]> 2022-12-06 13:44:09 UTC https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410673421 talhachaudhry https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410689068

Look at whether ET-cholinergic pathway still stands in male 5xFAD mice, by repeating similar experiments. 

Could repeat the experiments using wireless devices to elicit activation of ChR2 and NpHR, because a fiber optic line has potential to overheat and be toxic toward the mice, and act as a confounding variable. It also allows less tethering of mice models and allows them to explore the area without anxiety, which may factor into their responses in the NOR test.

]]> 2022-12-06 13:54:09 UTC https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410689068 talhachaudhry https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410710132 2022-12-06 14:07:05 UTC https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410710132 talhachaudhry https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410718255

Cholinergic neurons degenerate in AD neurons

Cholinergic neurons connect to ET neurons and their degeneration results in ET neuronal dysfunctions

ET dysfunctions causes recognition memory impairment in expression.

Sun et al. designed a novel study to map a pathway involved in memory impairments in AD mice models, which could be targeted in therapeutic studies working to improve AD symptoms.

]]> 2022-12-06 14:11:22 UTC https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410718255 talhachaudhry https://padlet.com/talhachaudhry/x7uqfp8nr227nwyv/wish/2410809836

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