-Scientists isolate DNA in order to study it by extracting the cells using an experiment with alcohol and RNA. 
-DNA differs from person to person because we have different sequences in our DNA.
-Tools of molecular biology are used to compare the DNA of two individuals cause

they can make cuts in DNA so that they can determine differences. (The number of cuts).
-Restriction enzymes are the cuts in the DNA.
-Restriction fragment length polymorphisms are a technique that exploits variations in homologous DNA sequences.

- Gel Electrophoresis is how they get the LP’s get separated and have positive and negative charges.

Restriction Enzyme-A degradative enzyme that recognizes specific nucleotide sequences and cuts up DNA.

Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms (RFLPs)-Differences in DNA sequence on homologous chromosomes that can result in different patterns of restriction fragment lengths (DNA segments resulting from treatment with restriction enzymes).

Thymine-A component of nucleic acid that carries hereditary information in DNA in cells. Chemically, it is a pyrimidine base.

Breakfast

2 egg whites, scrambled, no butter

2 slices thick turkey bacon

1 slice whole wheat toast with 1 pat butter

1 cup coffee with artificial sweetener and 1 tbsp. light coffee creamer

Lunch

1 12oz can Sprite

1 turkey sandwich (2 slices whole wheat bread, 3 slices turkey lunch meat, 1 slice cheddar cheese, ½  tbsp. mayonnaise)

16 fat-free tortilla chips with salsa

Snack

1/4 cup dry roasted peanuts

1 small apple

Dinner

½ cup apple juice

6 ounces salmon filet

1 cup brown rice cooked with salt and butter

1 cup steamed broccoli

Dessert

½ cup sugar free lemon gelatin

Sunday – August 12, 2012

Breakfast

1 cup Cheerios

½ cup skim milk 

½ cup blueberries

Lunch

1 cup low-fat strawberry yogurt

6 Ritz crackers

1 cup canned, low-sodium vegetable soup

1 12oz can cola

Snack

1 single serving bag potato chips

Dinner

2 slices thick crust pepperoni pizza (14” pizza)

2 cups tossed salad

4 tbsp. Caesar dressing

Dessert

1 cup vanilla ice cream with ½ cup mini marshmallows

5 Oreo cookies

Monday – August 13, 2012 

Breakfast

1 cup whole milk

1 biscui

*Note that Anna’s entries stopped on the morning of August 13^th. The entry for breakfast appears to be incomplete.  

Infections, pain, and fatigue are symptoms of sickle cell disease.

Treatments include medications, blood transfusions, and rarely a bone-marrow transplant.

Pain types: can be sudden in the chest

Whole body: dizziness, fatigue, low oxygen in the body, or malaise

Urinary: inability to make concentrated or dilute urine or blood in urine

Also common: abnormal breakdown of red blood cells, delayed development, inflamed fingers or toes, pallor, shortness of breath, or yellow skin and eyes

The body is that of a well-developed, well-nourished adult Hispanic female who appears to be her stated age of 38. Body height is 64 inches and body weight is 165 lbs. No evidence of post-mortem tampering is present and rigor mortis is generalized.

The body is admitted to the morgue clothed and within a body bag. One ring is present on the right ring finger. Clothes are not torn but are stained with blood. A small amount of vomit is present on the shoulder area of the blouse.

The head is normally shaped with medium length, black hair. There is an injury to the right temple, including an open wound where pre-mortem bruising is evident. Neck shows no sign of injury.

The chest and torso are an appropriate size; no visible sign of trauma. Abdomen is distended.

The extremities are symmetrical and without abnormalities. The ankles are swollen and signs of edema are positive with moderate fluid accumulation. The fingernails show substantial graying, indicative of low oxygen. The right proximal humerus shows signs of a recently healed break, as does the left distal tibia. 

Inflamed, red injection sites on left thigh.

A head wound at the right temple, 2 cm in length, and 5 mm in depth at the center. Surrounding area bruised, limited bleeding evident. No skull fracture.

 

Right elbow bruise, 2 cm in diameter, limited contusion. 

 

No other visible injuries.

 

The mucosa and wall of the esophagus are intact and gray-pink, without lesions or injuries. The gastric (stomach) mucosa is intact and pink without injury. The mucosa of the three parts of the small intestine, the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum, and the mucosa of the large intestine, the colon and rectum, appears normal. Approximately 125 ml of partially digested semisolid food is found in the stomach.

Food provides us energy in the measurement of calories (how much energy it takes to boil 1 ml of water). Our daily diets require 2000 calories or more. Energy is needed in life for our cells to perform basic tasks, such as converting energy, etc.

Carbohydrates are our main source of energy/energy storage. Common examples of carbohydrates are glucose, fructose, sucrose, etc. These foods often taste sugary or starchy. Diabetics usually limit these kinds of food. Some example of starches is bread, potatoes, rice, etc. Anna Garcia had a lot of carbohydrates incorporated in her diet.

 

Proteins help maintain our muscles and tissue by doing simple functions of the body. Common examples of proteins are in meat, such as chicken, cow, pig, etc. These foods should be limited in our diet. Anna Garcia had a lot of proteins in her diet.  

Lipids are another source of energy, in the form of fats. They are also a type of hormone and vitamin. Two types of lipids are saturated/unsaturated fats. Unsaturated fats are healthier. Anna Garcia had a lot of lipids in her diet. (Chips, butter, turkey bacon)

Anna Garcia’s meals in general included many foods that should be limited in her diet as a diabetic, such as toast/bread, apple juice, soda, oreos, etc. These foods are high in sugar and are bad for diabetics. Her diet was full of many empty calories and missed many important foods high with nutrients, such as vegetables and fruits.

Ultimately, her death was caused by her diet because if the symptoms of a diabetic gets out of hand, it could be lethal. This can be caused if sugar levels are too high and glucose floods bloodstreams. Symptoms that are deadly are seizures, diabetic comas, fainting,  etc. A scenario that could have happened was that she died from fainting while walking in a hall. Her head, unfortunately, landed on a table getting off the final blow of Anna’s life.

External Examination

Nails on fingers blue/gray in color

Laboratory Results:

Toxicology:

Blood:

Hydroxyurea, trace amounts – used to treat Sickle Cell Anemia

Hematocrit:

Lower than normal, 20%

Microscopic analysis of blood: 

Abnormalities found:

The red blood cells had a crescent like shape that doesn’t flow easily through the bloodstream.

Possible Causes of Death:

The lack of oxygen from sickle cell syndrome could have caused Anna to faint and hit her head, ultimately leading to death. Pain could have also been a big part because it may have caused her to fall. Strokes are also something that can happen from sickle cell, which could have killed Anna.

Anticodon-a triplet of nucleotides in tRNA that is complementary to the codon in mRNA

Codon-A series of three adjacent bases in an mRNA molecule codes for a specific amino acid

Hydrophilic-- neutral, polar R-Groups can shift their electrons to one end or the other, attract water molecules, amino acid chain stays straight

Hydrophobic-electrically neutral, nonpolar molecules, avoid polar R-Chains and water molecules, water molecules bond with other water molecules and heard nonpolar molecules

mutation-rare change in the DNA of a gene, ultimately creating genetic diversity.

nucleotide-phosphate, ribose sugar, nitrogenous base

protein-made of amino acids, help fight disease, build new body tissues, enzymes used for digestion and other chemical reactions are proteins, component of all cell membranes

protein synthesis-DNA turns into proteins

RNA-A type of nucleic acid consisting of nucleotide monomers with a ribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases adenine A, cytosine C, guanine G, and uracil U; usually single-stranded; functions in protein synthesis and as the genome of some viruses.

mRNA-A type of RNA, synthesized from DNA and attached to ribosomes in the cytoplasm; it specifies the primary structure of a protein.

tRNA-An RNA molecule that functions as an interpreter between nucleic acid and protein language by picking up specific amino acids and recognizing the appropriate codons in the mRNA.

Ribosome-where proteins are made

Transcription-copying of genetic information from DNA to RNA

Translation-The synthesis of a polypeptide using the genetic information encoded in an mRNA molecule. There is a change of language from nucleotides to amino acids.

Hydrophilic-neutral, polar R-Groups can shift their electrons to one end or the other, attract water molecules, amino acid chain stays straight

Hydrophobic--electrically neutral, nonpolar molecules, avoid polar R-Chains and water molecules, water molecules bond with other water molecules and heard nonpolar molecules

Chromosome-Any of the usually linear bodies in the cell nucleus that contain the genetic material.

Gene-A discrete unit of hereditary information.

Initiator Sequence- DNA sequences describing where transcription of a gene by RNA polymerase begins

Coding sequence- is that portion of a genes DNA or RNA composed of exons that codes for protein

Termination sequence- a section of nucleic acid sequence that marks the end of a gene or operon in genomic DNA during transcription.

Genotype-All or part of the genetic constitution of an individual or group.

Heredity-The transmission of traits from ancestor to descendant.

Pedigree-A diagram of a family tree showing the occurrence of heritable characteristics in parents and offspring over multiple generations.

Phenotype-The observable properties of an organism that are produced by the interaction of the genotype and the environment.

Punnett square-A simple graphical way of discovering all of the potential combinations of genotypes of an offspring, given the parents' genotypes.

Recessive trait-

A simple graphical way of discovering all of the potential combinations of genotypes of an offspring, given the parents' genotypes.

Explain how pedigrees can be used to track diseases. 

They show who is affected and not affected by a disease?
They can predict the outcome of two people mating, and if their children are affected by a disease or not.

Pedigrees:

A male : a square 

A female : a circle 

An affected male : filled in square

An affected female : filled in circle 

An unaffected male : empty square 

An unaffected female : empty circle

A carrier female : half colored circle

A carrier male: half colored square 

How are the following are illustrated in a pedigree?  

A marriage A line connecting them

Siblings

-horizontal line 

Offspring

-vertical line 

Why does sickle cell disease run in families, yet is not present in every generation? 

Because it is a recessive disorder.

How can doctors and genetic counselors calculate the probability of a child inheriting a disease?  

They can look at what each parents traits are, and look to see if the disease is dominant or recessive. Then they will be able to determine the % chance of the child inheriting that disease.

The result is a series of ‘bands’, with each band containing DNA molecules of a particular size. The bands furthest from the start of the gel contain the smallest fragments of DNA. The bands closest to the start of the gel contain the largest DNA fragments.

whip like tail structure that helps a bacterium move

nucleoid

region within bacteria visible in micrographs. Most of the bacteria DNA is found here.

plasmid

small circular DNA fragments found in the cytoplasm

plasma membrane

phospholipid bilayer responsible for the diffusion and transportation of materials in and out of the cell

capsule

layer of polysaccharide protects the bacterial cell

pili

hallow, hairlike structures that allow bacteria to attach to other cells

ribosomes

where protein synthesis occurs and mRNA is read to and amino acids are assembled

Antibody

An antigen-binding immunoglobulin, produced by B cells, that functions as the effector in an immune response.

Aseptic Technique

A procedure performed under sterile conditions.

Bacillus

A cylindrical or rod-shaped bacterium.

Bacteria

Single-celled microorganisms that are often aggregated into colonies or motile by means of flagella, typically live in soil, water, organic matter, or the bodies of plants and animals, are usually autotrophic, saprophytic, or parasitic in nutrition, and are noted for their biochemical effects and pathogenicity.

B Lymphocyte (B Cell)

A type of lymphocyte that develops in the bone marrow and later produces antibodies.

Coccus

A spherical bacterium.

Contagious

Communicable by contact.

Fungus

Saprophytic and parasitic spore-producing eukaryotic organisms that lack chlorophyll and include molds, rusts, mildews, smuts, mushrooms, and yeasts.

Gram Stain

A method for the differential staining of bacteria that involves fixing the bacterial cells to a slide and staining with crystal violet and iodine, then washing with alcohol, and counterstaining with safranin. Results in gram-positive bacteria retaining the purple dye and gram-negative organisms having it decolorized so that the red counterstain shows up.

Helminth

A parasitic worm (as a tapeworm, liver fluke, ascarid, or leech).

Immunity

A condition of being able to resist a particular disease, especially through preventing development of a pathogenic microorganism or by counteracting the effects of its products.

Infection

The state produced by the establishment of an infective agent in or on a suitable host.

Microbiology

A branch of biology dealing especially with microscopic forms of life (as bacteria, protozoans, viruses, and fungi).

Phagocyte

A cell (as a white blood cell) that engulfs and consumes foreign material (as microorganisms) and debris.

Prion

Any of various infectious proteins that are abnormal forms of normal cellular proteins, that proliferate by inducing the normal protein to convert to the abnormal form, and that in mammals include pathogenic forms.

Protozoan

Any protist of the phylum or subkingdom Protozoa.

Spirillum

A spiral-shaped bacterium.

T Lymphocyte (T Cells)

A type of lymphocyte responsible for cell-mediated immunity that differentiates under the influence of the thymus.

Transmission

The way a microbial organism moves from one host to another.

Virus

Any of a large group of submicroscopic infective agents that typically contain a protein coat surrounding an RNA or DNA core of genetic material but no semipermeable membrane, that are capable of growth and multiplication only in living cells, and that cause various important diseases in humans, animals, or plants.