1. they have excellent strategies supported by methods of goal setting, instructional planning, and classroom management
2. they know how to motivate, communicate, and work effectively with students who have different levels of skills and come from different diverse backgrounds
3. understand how to use appropriate levels of technology in the classroom 

• Empowered Learner. Students actively use technology to reach learning goals.
•  Digital Citizen. Students demonstrate responsibility and are ethical in their use of technology.
•  Knowledge Constructor. Students use a variety of resources and digital tools to construct knowledge, become more creative, and engage in meaningful learning.
•  Innovative Designer. Students use various technologies to solve problems and craft useful and imaginative solutions to these problems.
•  Computational Thinker. Students develop strategies in using technology to create solutions and test them.
•  Creative Communicator. Students communicate effectively and think creatively in their use of digital tools to attain goals.
•  Global Collaborator. Students use technology to widen their perspectives and enhance their learning by connecting with others locally and globally.

• Descriptive data collection involves observing and recording behavior. 

• has a gifted program started two years ago been implemented as proposed?
• What challenges to implementing a new technology program were faced and how were they addressed?
• What differences in students' reading skills are observed when comparing those who participated in the two different reading programs used by the school system?

• Observations, interviews, surveys, and standardized tests when statistics are used to analyze the data collected 

• They might use an experimental design and statistically analyze the data (quantitative) and also use a focus group or case study (qualitative) to obtain greater breadth and depth of information about a particular topic. 

•  developmental cognitive neuroscience, which explores links between development, cognitive processes, and the brain (Johnson, 2020).
   For example, later in this chapter you will learn about connections between developmental changes in regions of the brain and children's thinking.
•  developmental social neuroscience, which examines connections between socioemotional processes, development, and the brain (Hoehl & Markova, 2018). Later in this chapter you will read about developmental changes in the brain and adolescents' risk-taking behavior and peer relations.

•  a biological processes and environmental experiences influence the brain's development
• the brain has plasticity (the ability to change) and depends on experience
• development of the brain is linked closely with cognitive development 

• matures much earlier than the prefrontal cortex and is almost completely developed in early adolescence
• the limbic system structure that is especially involved in emotion is the amygdala 

• left hemisphere; speech and grammar 
• right hemisphere; understanding such aspects of language as appropriate use of language in different contexts, evaluation of the emotional expressiveness of language,, and the much of humor 

•  Both early and later experiences, including educational experiences, are very important in the brain's development. Significant changes continue to occur at the cellular and structural level in the brain through adolescence.
•  Synaptic connections between neurons can change dramatically as a consequence of the learning experiences children and adolescents have. Connections between neurons that are used when children focus their attention, remember, and think as they are reading, writing, and doing math are strengthened;
• those that aren't used are replaced by other pathways or disappear.
•  Development at the highest level of the brain -the prefrontal cortex, where such important cognitive processes as thinking, reasoning, and decision making primarily occur -continues at least through the emerging adult years (Nwe et al., 2021). This development in the prefrontal cortex moves from being more diffuse to more focal and involves increased efficiency of processing information (de Haan & Johnson, 2016). As activation in the prefrontal cortex becomes more focused, cognitive control increases. This is exemplified in children being able to focus their attention more effectively and ignore distractions while they are learning as they become older.
•  Despite the increased focal activation of the prefrontal cortex as children grow older, changes in the brain during adolescence present a challenge to increased cognitive control. In adolescence, the earlier maturation of the limbic system and the amygdala, which are involved in processing of emotions, and the more drawn-out development of the prefrontal cortex, provide an explanation of the difficulty adolescents have in controlling their emotions and their tendency to engage in risk-taking behavior

• Birth - 2 years old 
• constructing an understanding of the world by coordinating their sensory experiences; reaching & touching

• 2-7 years old 
• the Symbolic Function Substage occurs roughly between 2 and 4 years of age 
• expanded us of language an pretend play 
• Intuitive thought substage - second substage of pre operational thought, starting at about 4 and lasting until 7 years old 
• Piaget called this substage "intuitive"
• Centration; focuses or centering attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others
• Ask a lot of questions 

• 7-11 years old 
• involves using operations 
• logical reasoning replaces intuitive reasoning 
• a reversible mental action pertaining to real, concrete objects 
• allows children to coordinate several characteristics rather than focus on a single property of an object
• classifying/dividing things into different sets or subsets and considering their interrelationships 

• 11-adulthood 
• At this stage, adolescents engage in extended speculation about the idea qualities they desire in themselves and others. These ideas may be expressed in fantasy. 

• A form of egocentrism also emerges in adolescence 
• occurs more commonly in middle school than high school 
• many adolescents dont consider themselves invulnerable 
• social media serves as an amplification tool for adolescent egocentrism 

• assimilation and accommodation 
• object permanence
• egocentrism
• conservation
• hypothetical-deductive reasoning 

•  Estimates of children's competence. Some cognitive abilities emerge earlier than Piaget thought, others later (Monahan et al., 2016; Quinn & Bhatt, 2016). Conservation of numbers has been demonstrated as early as age 3, although Piaget did not think it emerged until age 7. Young children are not as uniformly "pre-" this and "pre-" that (precausal, preoperational) as Piaget thought (Flavell et al., 2002). Other cognitive abilities can emerge later than Piaget thought. Many adolescents still think in concrete operational ways or are just beginning to master formal operations (Kuhn, 2009).
•  Stages. Cognitive development is not as stage-like as Piaget envisioned (Müller & Kerns, 2015). Piaget conceived of stages as unitary structures of thought. Some concrete operational concepts, however, do not appear at the same time. For example, children do not learn to conserve at the same time as they learn to cross-classify.
•  Training children to reason at a higher level. Some children who are at one cognitive stage (such as preoperational) can be trained to reason at a higher cognitive stage (such as concrete operational). However, Piaget argued that such training is only superficial and ineffective, unless the child is at a maturational transition point between the stages (Gelman & Opfer, 2004).
•  Culture and education. Culture and education exert stronger influences on children's development than Piaget envisioned (Gauvain, 2016). For example, the age at which children acquire conservation skills is related to the extent to which their culture provides relevant practice (Cole, 2006). An outstanding teacher can guide students' learning experiences that will help them move to a higher cognitive stage.
  
  

• more attentive
• improve their performance more then those who dont
• use more frequent planning & motivational private speech have higher task accuracy during a constructive task 

• children construct knowledge by transforming, organizing, and reorganizing previous knowledge 
• children need support to explore their world and discover knowledge

• children construct knowledge through social interaction
• students need many opportunities to learn with the teacher and more skilled peers 

• Phonology is the sound system of a language, including the sounds used and how they may be combined. A phoneme is the basic unit of sound in a language; it is the smallest unit of sound that affects meaning.

• Morphology, refers to the units of meaning involved in word formation. A
  morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning; it is a word or a part of a word that
  cannot be broken into smaller meaningful parts. Every word in the English
  language is made up of one or more morphemes.

• Syntax involves the way words are combined to form acceptable phrases and
  sentences

• Semantics refers to the meaning of words and sentences. Every word has a set of semantic features, or required attributes related to meaning. Words have semantic restrictions on how they can be used in sentences

• The appropriate use of language in different contexts.
• When you take turns speaking in a discussion, you are demonstrating knowledge of pragmatics.

• Some language scholars view the remarkable similarities in how children acquire language all over the world, despite the vast variation in language input they receive, as strong evidence that language has a biological basis
• Children are neither exclusively biological linguists nor exclusively social architects of language.

• Babbling occurs in the middle of the first year and infants usually utter
  their first word at about 10 to 13 months.
• In this two-word stage, they quickly grasp the importance of language in communication, creating phrases such as "Book there, "My candy." "Mama walk," and "Give Papa.

• The transition from simple sentences expressing a single proposition to complex sentences begins between 2 and 3 years of age and continues into the elementary school years
• In terms of phonology, most preschool children gradually become sensitive to the sounds of spoken words. They notice rhymes, enjoy poems, make up silly names for things by substituting one sound for another
• they overgeneralize these rules, applying them to words that do not follow the rules. For example, a preschool child might say "foots" instead of "feet" or "goed" instead of "went."

• increased use of language to talk about things that are not physically present, learning what a word is, and learning how to recognize and talk about sounds.
• During middle and late childhood, changes occur in the way mental vocabulary is organized.
• The process of categorizing becomes easier as children increase their vocabulary.
  Children's vocabulary increases from an average of about 14,000 words at age 6 to an average of about 40,000 words by age 11

• instruction should be built on what children already know about oral language, reading, and writing. Further, early precursors of literacy and academic success include language skills, phonological and syntactic knowledge, letter identification, and enjoyment of books 

• The ecological theory developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner primarily
  focuses on the social contexts in which children live and the people who influence their development.
• ecological theory identifies five environmental systems that range from close interpersonal interactions to broad-based influences of culture. The five systems are the microsystem (family, friends, peers, school), mesosystem (family experience and school experience), exosystem (school board park board in the community), macrosystem (societies values and customs), and chronosystem (children experiences are different then they parents and grandparents).

• In Erikson's theory, eight stages of development unfold as people go
  through the human life span. Trust vs Mistrust (infancy), Autonomy vs shame and doubt (1-3), Initiative vs. guilt (3-5), Industry vs. Inferiority (6-puberty), Identity vs. Identity confusion (10-20), Intimacy vs. isolation (20s,30s), Generativity vs. stagnation (40s,50s), Integrity vs despair (60s and up).

• is restrictive and punitive. Authoritarian parents exhort children to follow their directions and respect them. They place firm limits and controls on their children and allow little verbal exchange. For example, an authoritarian parent might say, "Do it my way or else. There will be no discussion!" Children of authoritarian parents often behave in socially incompetent ways. They tend to be anxious about social comparison, fail to initiate activity, and have poor communication skills.

• encourages children to be independent but still places limits and controls on their actions. Extensive verbal give-and-take is allowed, and parents are nurturant and supportive. Children whose parents are authoritative often behave in socially competent ways. They tend to be self-reliant, delay gratification, get along with their peers, and show high self-esteem. Because of these positive outcomes, Baumrind strongly endorses authoritative parenting.

•  is a parenting style in which parents are uninvolved in their children's lives. Children of neglectful parents develop the sense that other aspects of their parents' lives are more important than they are. Children of neglectful parents often behave in socially incompetent ways. They tend to have poor self-control, don't handle independence well, and aren't motivated to achieve.

• is a parenting style in which parents are highly involved with their children but place few limits or restrictions on their behaviors. These parents often let their children do whatever they want because they believe the combination of nurturant support and lack of restraints will produce a creative, confident child. The result is that these children usually don't learn to control their own behavior. Indulgent parents do not take into account the development of the whole child.

• work can produce positive and negative effects on parenting 
• when parents have poor working conditions, such as long hours, overtime work, stressful work and lack autonomy at work, are likely to be more irritable ar home and engage in less effective parenting than their counterparts who have better considitons 

• children from divorced families show poorer adjustment than their counterparts in non divorced families 
• effects of divorce are complex and depends on the child's age, strengths and weaknesses at the time of the divorce, the type of custody, socio-economic status, and post divorce family functioning 
• research suggests that cooperative coparenting between divorced spouses is linked to children having fewer adjustment problems 

• parents can serve as gatekeepers and provide guidance as children assumer more responsibility for themselves 
• parents also play a role in stimulating children's academic achievement 

• Lots of children worry about whether they are popular or not. they don't want to be average or neglected. 
• Friendships influence children's attitudes toward school and how successful they are in the classroom
• students who did not have a friend engaged in less prosocial behavior, had lower grades, and were more emotionally distressed than students who had at least one friend, and they continued to have higher levels of emotional distress in eighth grade. researchers have found that school friendships and perceptions of belongingness helped protect middle school students against substance use and aggression

• social contexts vary throughout all ages, they also change very much through the schools you attend. 
• Developmentally appropriate education is based on knowledge of the typical development of children within an age span as well as the uniqueness of the child. It emphasizes the importance of creating settings that encourage children to be active learners and reflect children's interests and capabilities.
• The Montessori approach is a philosophy of education in which children are given considerable freedom and spontaneity in choosing activities. They are allowed to move from one activity to another as they desire.
• Project Head Start was designed to provide young children from low-income families opportunities to acquire the skills and experiences that are important for success in school.
  
  

• self esteem refers to an individuals' overall view of him or herself; also referred to as self-worth or self-image 
• persistent low self-esteem is linked with low achievement, depression, eating disorders and delinquency 
• researchers have found that self-esteem changes as children develop 
• self-esteem drops drastically from childhood to early adolescence

• Self esteem for students' varies across different domains, such as academic, athletic, physical appearance, social skills, and so on

• occurs when individuals have not yet experienced a crisis (i.e., they have not yet explored meaningful alternatives) or made any commitments. Not only are they undecided about occupational and ideological choices, but they are also likely to show little interest in such matters.

• occurs when individuals have made a commitment but have not yet experienced a crisis. This occurs most often when parents hand down commitments to their adolescents, more often than not in an authoritarian manner. In these circumstances, adolescents have not had adequate opportunities to explore different approaches, ideologies, and vocations on their own.

•  occurs when individuals are in the midst of a crisis, but their commitments are either absent or only vaquely defined.

• occurs when individuals have undergone a crisis and have made a commitment.

• is an enduring aspect of the self that includes a sense of membership in an ethnic group, along with the attitudes and feelings related to that membership
• Researchers are increasingly finding that a positive ethnic identity is related to positive outcomes for ethnic minority adolescents
• Strong ethnic affiliation and connection serve a protective function in reducing risk for psychiatric problems 

• concerns rules and conventions about just interactions between people

• that moral development primarily involved moral reasoning and occurs in stages 
• a ket concept in understanding progression through the levels and stages is that their morality becomes more internal or mature
• their reasons for their moral decision or values begin to go beyond the external or superficial reasons they gave when they were younger 

•  Stage 1. Punishment and obedience orientation is the first Kohlber stage of moral development. At this stage, moral thinking is often tied to punishment. For example, children and adolescents obey adults because adults tell them to obey.
•  Stage 2. Individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange is the second stage of Kohlberg's theory. At this stage, individuals pursue their own interests but also let others do the same. Thus, what is right involves an equal exchange. People are nice to others so that others will be nice to them in return.

• Stage 3. Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity is Kohlberg's third stage of moral development. At this stage, individuals value trust, caring, and loyalty to others as a basis of moral judgments. Children and adolescents often adopt their parents' moral standards at this stage, seeking to be thought of by their parents as a "good girl" or a "good boy.
•  Stage 4. Social systems morality is the fourth stage in Kohlberg's theory of moral development. At this stage, moral judgments are based on understanding the social order, law, justice, and duty.
   For example, adolescents may say that, for a community to work effectively, it needs to be protected by laws that are adhered to by its members.

• Stage 5. Social contract or utility and individual rights is the fifth Kohlberg stage. At this stage, individuals reason that values, rights, and principles undergird or transcend the law. A person evaluates the validity of actual laws and examines social systems in terms of the degree to which they preserve and protect fundamental human rights and values.
•  Stage 6. Universal ethical principles is the sixth and highest stage in Kohlberg's theory of moral development. At this stage, the person has developed a moral standard based on universal human rights. When faced with a conflict between law and conscience, the person will follow conscience, even though the decision might involve personal risk

• States that there are different domains of social knowledge and reasoning 
• an important distinction is between moral and social conventional domains 
• Children's and adolescent's moral and social conventional domains emerge from their attempts to understand and deal with different forms of social experience 

• focuses on conventional rules that have been established by social consensus to control behavior and maintain the social system 

• academic cheating can include; plagiarism, "cheat sheets", copying from a neighbor, purchasing papers, falsifying lab results 
• Why? pressure to get high grades, time pressures, a self-perception that they don't have the ability to succeed, poor teaching, lack of interest, and perceiving a low likelihood of being caught and punished. 

• caring about the welfare and rights of others, feeling concern and empathy for them, and acting in a way that benefits others are all components of prosocial behavior

• John Dewey recognized that even when schools do not have specific programs in moral education, they provide moral education through a "hidden curriculum"
• every school has a persuasive moral atmosphere even if it does not have a program of moral education 

•  a direct approach to moral education that involves teaching students basic moral literacy to prevent them from engaging in immoral behavior and doing harm to themselves or others 
• the argument is that behaviors such as lying, stealing, and cheating are wrong, and that students should be taught this throughout their education 

• helping people to clarify what their lives are for and what is worth working for 

• an approach based on the belief that students should learn to value ideals such as democracy and justice as their moral reasoning develops 

• a form of education that promotes social responsibility and service to the community
• in service learning students engage in activities like; tutoring, helping elders, working in hospitals, assisting in child-care centers, learning up and etc. 
• the goal if to make students less self-centered and more motivated to help others 
• doing this can increase grades, goals setting, self-esteem and etc. 

• When children are 4 to 5 years of age, they show an increased ability to reflect on emotions. They also begin to understand that the same event can elicit different feelings in different people. Moreover, they show a growing awareness that they need to manage their emotions to meet social standards (Eisenberg et al., 2016). And, by 5 years of age, most children can accurately identify emotions that are produced by challenging circumstances and describe strategies they might call on to cope with everyday stress (Blair et al., 2016; Cole, 2016).

• During the elementary school years, children show marked improvement in their ability to suppress or conceal negative emotional reactions. Children now sometimes intentionally hide their emotions. Although a boy may feel sad that a friend does not want to play with him, he may decide not to share those feelings with his parents.
•  In this time frame, children also use self-initiated strategies for redirecting feelings. In the elementary school years, children reflect more about emotional experiences and develop strategies to cope with their emotional lives. Children can more effectively manage their emotions by cognitive means, such as using distracting thoughts. A boy may be excited about his birthday party that will take place later in the afternoon, but still be able to concentrate on his schoolwork during the day.
•  Also in middle and late childhood, children develop a capacity for genuine empathy. For example, two girls may see another child in distress on the playground and run to the child and ask if they can help.

• have high emotions 
• it is important for adults to recognize the moodiness is a normal aspect of early adolescence and to understand that most adolescents make it through these moody times to become competent adults 

• Second Step focuses on the following aspects of social-emotional learning from pre-K through the eighth grade: (1) pre-K: self-regulation and executive function skills that improve their attention and help them control their behavior; (2) K-grade 5: making friends, self-regulation of emotion, and solving problems; and (3) communication skills, coping with stress, and decision making to help them avoid engaging in problem behaviors.
•  CASEL targets five core social and emotional learning domains: (1) self-awareness (e.g., recognizing one's emotions and how they affect behavior); (2) self-management (e.g., self-control, coping with stress, and impulse control); (3) social awareness (perspective taking and empathy); (4) relationship skills (e.g., developing positive relationships and communicating effectively with individuals from diverse backgrounds); and (5) responsible decision making (e.g., engaging in ethical behavior and understanding the consequences of one's actions).

• Reassure children (numerous times, if necessary) of their safety and security.
•  Allow children to retell events and be patient in listening to them.
•  Encourage children to talk about any disturbing or confusing feelings, reassuring them that such feelings are normal after a stressful event.
•  Protect children from re-exposure to frightening situations and reminders of the trauma-for example, by limiting discussion of the event in front of the children.
•  Help children make sense of what happened, keeping in mind that children may misunderstand what took place. For example, young children "may blame themselves, believe things happened that did not happen, believe that terrorists are in the school, etc.
   Gently help children develop a realistic understanding of the event" (p. 10).

• The two main intelligence tests that are administered to children on an individual
  basis today are the Stanford-Binet test and the Wechsler scales.

• developed the concept of mental age (MA), an individual's level of mental development relative to others.

• not only provide an overall IQ score and scores on a number of subtests but also yield several composite indexes

• include Lorge-Thorndike Intelligence test & Otis-Lennon School Ability Test (OLSAT)
• benefits; more convenient and economical than individual tests
• drawback; when the test is given to a large group, the examiner cannot establish rapport, determine the student's anxiety and etc. Students could also get distracted by the others 

• intelligence comes in three forms: analytical, creative, and practical

• The ability to think in words and to use language to express meaning (authors, journalists, and speakers)

• The ability to carry out mathematical operations (scientists, engineers, and accountants)

• The ability to think three-dimensionally (architects, artists, and sailors)

• The ability to manipulate objects and be physically adept (surgeons, craftspeople, dancers, and athletes)

•  A sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythm, and tone (composers, musicians, and music therapists)

• The ability to understand oneself and effectively direct one's life (theologians and psychologists)

• The ability to understand and effectively interact with others (teachers and mental health professionals)

• The ability to observe patterns in nature and understand natural and human-made systems (farmers, botanists, ecologists, and landscapers)

• the ability to perceive and express emotion accurately and adaptively (such as taking the perspective of others), to understand emotion and emotional knowledge (such as understanding the roles that emotions play in friendship and other relationships), to use feelings to facilitate thought (such as being in a positive mood, which is linked to creative thinking), and to manage emotions in oneself and others 
• emotional intelligence abilities were linked to academic performance above
  and beyond intelligence and personality factors however, caution that there is limited evidence to support that the relationship between emotional intelligence and academic performance is causal

• Research shows rear reflective students are more likely to do well at the following tasks 
• reflective students are also more likely to set their own learning goals and concentrate on relevant information 
• reflective students usually have higher standards for performance 

• involves how students approach learning materials
• Students who approach learning with a surface style fail to tie what they are learning into a larger conceptual framework.
• Deep learners are more likely to actively construct what they learn and give meaning to what they need to remember. Thus, deep learners take a constructivist approach to learning.
• Deep learners also are more likely to be self-motivated to learn, whereas surface learners are more likely to be motivated to learn because of external rewards, such as grades and positive feedback from the teacher

• involve having either a positive (optimistic) or negative (pessimistic) outlook on the future.
• A study of adolescents found that having an optimistic style of thinking predicted a reduction in suicidal ideation for individuals who had experienced negative and potentially traumatic life events
• Another study revealed that adolescents with an optimistic thinking style had a lower risk of developing depressive symptoms than their pessimistic counterparts
• This concept emphasizes that positive academic outcomes will occur if teachers (1) believe they can make a difference in their students' academic achievement; (2) trust students and parents to cooperate in this objective; and (3) believe in their ability to overcome problems and be resilient in the face of difficulties

• Criticisms have been leveled at the concept of learning and thinking styles. A survey of researchers in the field of learning and thinking styles revealed that the three most common criticisms of these styles involve (1) low reliability of the styles (lack of consistency when they are assessed); (2) low validity of the styles (whether the tests that are used actually measure the styles purportedly being assessed); and (3) confusion in the definitions of styles
• Two research reviews supported these criticisms, finding that scientific support for learning style theories is lacking
• Moreover, there is strong evidence that matching instruction to students' learning styles or preferences does NOT improve learning

• Personality refers to distinctive thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that characterize the way an individual adapts to the world
• some researchers argue that they have identified the "big five" factors of personality (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (emotional stability)
• the importance of the Big Five factors indicates that they are related
  to such important aspects of children's, adolescents', and adults' lives as health, intelligence and cognitive functioning, achievement and work, and relationships
• Indeed, research supports that conscientiousness is the most important personality predictor of academic achievement

• Openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (emotional stability).

• person-situation interaction, the best way to characterize an individual's personality is not in terms of personal traits or characteristics alone, but also in terms of the situation involved.
• don't think of personality traits as always dooming a student to behave in a
  particular way across all situations

•  An easy child is generally in a positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, and adapts easily to new experiences.
•  A difficult child reacts negatively and cries frequently, engages in irregular daily routines, and is slow to accept change.
•  A slow-to-warm-up child has a low activity level, is somewhat negative, and displays a low intensity of mood.
• Temperament is a person's behavioral style and characteristic ways of responding. Some students are active; others are calm. Some respond warmly to people; others fuss and fret.
• An easy child is generally in a positive mood, quickly establishes reqular
  routines in infancy, and adapts easily to new experiences.
• A difficult child reacts negatively and cries frequently, engages in irregular
  daily routines, and is slow to accept change.
• A slow-to-warm-up child has a low activity level, is somewhat negative, and
  displays a low intensity of mood.
• Individual differences emerge in the development of children's temperament styles, such as effortful control. some children develop effortful control while others don't 

• The match between an individual's temperament and the environmental demands the individual must cope with, called goodness of fit, can be important to his or her adjustment.
  
  

•  is the view that behavior should be explained by observable

• are defined by psychologists as the thoughts, feelings, and motives that each of us experiences but that cannot be observed by others.
• four main cognitive approaches to learning in this book: social cognitive (behavior, environment, and person); information-processing (attention, memory, thinking and other processes); cognitive constructivist (knowledge and understanding); and social constructivist (collaboration with others for knowledge and understanding).
• Five main approaches to learning: Behavioral, social, cognitive, information processing, cognitive constructivist, and social constructivist 
  
  

•  is a type of learning in which an organism learns to connect, or associate, stimuli.
• In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus (such as the sight of a person) becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response.
• understand two types of stimuli and two types of responses: unconditioned stimulus (UCS), unconditioned response (UCR), conditioned stimulus (CS), and conditioned response (CR).
• An unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is a stimulus that automatically produces a response without any prior learning. An unconditioned response (UCR) is an unlearned response that is automatically elicited by the UCS.
• A conditioned stimulus (CS) is a previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response after being associated with the US.
• A conditioned response (CR) is a learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after UCS-CS pairing.
• Among the things in the child's schooling that produce pleasure because they have become classically conditioned are a favorite song and feelings that the classroom is a safe and fun place to be.

• Generalization in classical conditioning involves the tendency of a new stimulus similar to the original conditioned stimulus to produce a similar response.
• Discrimination in classical conditioning occurs when the organism responds to
  certain stimuli but not others.
• Extinction in classical conditioning involves the weakening of the conditioned
  response (CR) in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus (UCS).

• Systematic desensitization is a method based on classical conditioning that reduces anxiety by getting the individual to associate deep relaxation with successive visualizations of increasingly anxiety-producing situations.
• Desensitization involves a type of counterconditioning. The relaxing feelings that the student imagines (UCS) produce relaxation (UCR).
• Chances are you will have students who fear speaking in front of the class or have other anxieties, and there may be circumstances in your own life where you might benefit from replacing anxiety with relaxation.

• Classical conditioning excels in explaining how neutral stimuli become
  associated with unlearned, involuntary responses.
• It is not as effective in explaining voluntary behaviors, such as why a student studies hard for a test or likes history better than geography.

• Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which the consequences of behavior produce changes in the probability that the behavior will occur.

• Reinforcement (reward) is a consequence that increases the probability that a behavior will occur and punishment is a consequence that decreases the
  probability a behavior will occur.
• In positive reinforcement, the frequency of a response increases because it is followed by a rewarding stimulus. In negative reinforcement, the frequency of a response increases because it is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus.

• Generalization in operant conditioning means giving the same response to a stimulus similar to the one for which it was originally reinforced.
• Discrimination in operant conditioning involves differentiating among stimuli or environmental events.
• extinction occurs when a previously reinforced response is no longer reinforced and the response decreases.
  
  

• Applied behavior analysis involves applying the principles of operant conditioning to change human behavior.
• Three uses of applied behavior analysis are especially important in education: increasing desirable behavior, using prompts and shaping, and decreasing undesirable behavior. These are used to target specific behaviors and help change them.

• Applied behavior analysts recommend that teachers find out what reinforcers work best with which children-that is, individualize the use of particular reinforcers.
• To find out the most effective reinforcers for a child, you can examine what has motivated the child in the past
• The Premack principle states that a high-probability activity can serve as a reinforcer for a low-probability activity. Can be used with one student or the whole class

• For a reinforcer to be effective, the teacher must give it only after the child performs the particular behavior. Applied behavior analysts often recommend that teachers make "If ... then" statements. 
• Reinforcers are more effective when they are given in a timely way, as soon as
  possible after the child performs the target behavior. This helps children see the contingency connection between the reward and their behavior.

• schedules of reinforcement, which are partial reinforcement timetables that determine when a response will be reinforced. The four main schedules of reinforcement are fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, and variable-interval.
• fixed-ratio schedule, a behavior is reinforced after a set number of responses.
• variable-ratio schedule, a behavior is reinforced on an unpredictable basis like in gambling.
• fixed-interval schedule, the first appropriate response after a fixed amount of time is reinforced.
• variable-interval schedule, a response is reinforced after a variable amount of time has elapsed.
• Initial learning is usually faster with continuous rather than partial reinforcement.

• Contracting involves putting reinforcement contingencies in writing. If problems arise and children don't uphold their end of the bargain, the teacher can refer the children to the contract they agreed to.

• in negative reinforcement, the frequency of response increases because the response removes an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus
• Using negative reinforcement has some drawbacks. Sometimes when teachers try to use this behavioral strategy, children throw a tantrum, run out of the room, or destroy materials. These negative outcomes happen most often when children don't have the skills or capabilities to do what the teacher asks of them.

• A prompt is an added stimulus or cue that is given just before a response that increases the likelihood that the response will occur. Instructions can be used as prompts
• Instruction can be used as prompts

• Shaping involves teaching new behaviors by reinforcing successive approximations to a specified target behavior.
• shaping can be an important tool for the classroom teacher because most students need reinforcement along the way to reaching a learning goal 

1.  Use differential reinforcement.
2.  Terminate reinforcement (extinction).
3.  Remove desirable stimuli.
4.  Present aversive stimuli (punishment).

• In differential reinforcement, the teacher reinforces behavior that is more
  appropriate or that is incompatible with what the child is doing.

• The strategy of terminating reinforcement involves withdrawing positive reinforcement from a child's inappropriate behavior.
• Applied behavior analysts point out that this can occur even when the teacher gives attention to an inappropriate behavior by criticizing, threatening, or yelling at the student.

• A third option is to remove desirable stimuli from the student. Two strategies for accomplishing this are "time-out" and "response cost.'

• In other words, take the student away from positive reinforcement.

•  which refers to taking a positive reinforcer away from a student, as when the student loses certain privileges.

• an aversive stimulus is punishment only if it decreases the undesirable behavior. All too often, though, aversive stimuli are not effective punishments, in that they do not decrease the unwanted behavior and indeed sometimes increase the unwanted behavior over time.
• The most common types of aversive stimuli that teachers use are verbal
  reprimands.
• there are lots of ongoing debates on whether or not it effects children development if they are punished 

• The information-processing approach emphasizes that children manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it.
• children develop a gradually increasing capacity for processing information, which allows them to acquire increasingly complex knowledge and skills

• As children grow and mature, and as they experience the world, their information-processing abilities increase. These changes are likely influenced by increases in both capacity and speed of processing. These two characteristics are often referred to as cognitive resources.
• Both biology and experience contribute to growth in cognitive resources.
• As children grow and mature, important biological developments occur both in brain structures, such as changes in the frontal lobes, and at the level of neurons, such as the blooming and pruning of connections between neurons that produces fewer but stronger connections

•  is the process by which information gets stored in memory.

• refers to the ability to process information with little or no effort.

• is the creation of new procedures for processing information.

•  which means "knowing about knowing." One example of metacognition is what children know about the best ways to remember what they have read.

• Attention is the focusing of mental resources.

•  is focusing on a specific aspect of experience that is relevant while ignoring others that are irrelevant. Focusing on one voice among many in a crowded room or a noisy restaurant is an example of selective attention.

• involves concentrating on more than one activity at the same time. If you are listening to music while you are reading this, you are engaging in divided attention.

•  is the ability to maintain attention over an extended period of time. Sustained attention is also called vigilance. Staying focused on reading this chapter from start to finish without interruption is an example of sustained attention. A study found that sustained attention in preschoolers was linked to a greater likelihood of completing college by 25 years of age (McClelland et al., 2013).

• involves planning actions, allocating attention to goals, detecting and compensating for errors, monitoring progress on tasks, and dealing with novel or difficult circumstances. An example of executive attention is effectively deploying attention to carry out the aforementioned cognitive tasks while writing a 10-page paper for a history course.

• The length of time children can pay attention increases as they get older.
• Preschool children's ability to control and sustain their attention is related to
  school readiness and achievement later in childhood. 
• Sustained attention improves rapidly from 5 to 10 years of age, and this increased attention is linked to better performance on cognitive tasks
• Control over attention shows important changes during childhood. External stimuli are likely to determine the target of the preschooler's attention; what is salient, or obvious, grabs the preschooler's attention.
• Attention to relevant information increases steadily through the elementary and secondary school years. Processing of irrelevant information decreases in adolescence.
• As children grow up, their abilities both to direct selective attention and to divide attention also improve. Older children and adolescents are better than younger children at tasks that require shifts of attention.

• Memory is the retention of information over time. Without memory you would not be able to connect what happened to you yesterday with what is going on in your life today.
• memory focuses on three things: encoding (the process by which info get into memory), storage (the retention of information over time), and retrieval (taking info out of storage).

• By focusing their attention, as children listen to a teacher, do homework, write a paper, read a book, watch a movie, listen to music, or talk with a friend, they can encode the information into memory. it consists of many processes: rehearsal, deep processing, elaboration, constructing images, and organization. 

• Rehearsal is the conscious repetition of information over time to increase the length of time information stays in memory. Rehearsal does not work well for retaining information over the long term because it often involves just rote repetition of information without imparting any meaning to it.

• levels of processing theory states that the processing of memory occurs on a continuum from shallow to deep, with deeper processing producing better memory.

• Elaboration is the extensiveness of information processing involved in encoding. Thus, when you present the concept of democracy to students, they likely will remember it better if they come up with good examples of it.
• To remember a piece of information, such as a name, an experience, or a fact about geography, students need to search for the code that contains this information among the mass of codes in their long-term memory.

• When we construct an image of something, we are elaborating the information. 
• Researchers have found that encouraging children to use imagery to remember verbal information works better for older children than for younger children

• If students organize information when they are encoding it, their memory benefits
• When you present information in an organized way, your students are more likely to remember it. This is especially true if you organize information hierarchically or outline it.

•  is a beneficial organizational memory strategy that involves grouping, or "packing," information into "higher-order" units that can be remembered as single units.

• some kids can remember information for half a second, half a minute, others for minutes, hours, years, or even a lifetime 
• there are three types of memory: sensory (several seconds), short-term (around 30 seconds), and long-term (lasts up to a lifetime)

• Sensory memory holds information from the world in its original sensory form for only an instant, not much longer than the brief time a student is exposed to the visual, auditory, and other sensations.
• sounds last up to several seconds when visual images last of only about one-fourth of a second

• Short-term memory is a limited-capacity memory system in which information is retained for as long as 30 seconds, unless the information is rehearsed or
  otherwise processed further, in which case it can be retained longer. compared to sensory memory it is limited in capacity but is longer in duration.
• They say the limit is 7+2 This has to do with memory span, the number of digits an individual can report back without error from a single presentation. How many digits individuals can report back depends on how old they are.

•  is a three-part system that temporarily holds information as people perform tasks. Working memory is a kind of mental "workbench" where information is manipulated and assembled to help us make decisions, solve problems, and comprehend written and spoken language.
• working memory develops gradually and is linked to many aspects of children development 

• Long-term memory is a type of memory that holds enormous amounts of
  information for a long period of time in a relatively permanent fashion.
• typical humans's long term memory capacity is staggering, often only taking moment to find information

• According to the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, memory involves a sequence of sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory stages. 
• Atkinson and Shiffrin claimed that the longer information is retained in short-term memory through the use of rehearsal, the greater its chance is of getting into long-term memory.
• people argue that memory doesn't always work in neatly packaged three-stage sequence and say that working memory uses long term memory and it is more flexible 

• memory can be differentiated on the basis of its contents. long-term memory is divided into the subtypes of declarative and procedural memory. Declarative memory is subdivided into episodic memory and semantic memory.

• Declarative memory is the conscious recollection of information, such as specific facts or events that can be verbally communicated.
• declarative memory could include recounting an event they have witnessed or describing a basic principle of math.
• Procedural memory is non declarative knowledge in the form of skills and
  cognitive operations. Procedural memory cannot be consciously recollected, at least not in the form of specific events or facts.

• Episodic memory is the retention of information about the where and when of life's happenings.
• Semantic memory is a student's general knowledge about the world. Semantic memory is independent of the person's identity with the past.

• Network theories describe how information in memory is organized and connected. They emphasize nodes in the memory network. The nodes stand for labels or concepts.

• Schema theories state that when we reconstruct information, we fit it into
  information that already exists in our mind.
• A schema is information-concepts, knowledge, information about events-that already exists in a person's mind
• Unlike network theories, which assume that retrieval involves specific facts,
  schema theory claims that long-term memory searches are not very exact.
• schema theory accurately predicts that people don't always coldly store
  and retrieve bits of data in a computer-like fashion.
• A script is a schema for an event. Scripts often have information about physical features, people, and typical occurrences.

• fuzzy trace theory, which states that when individuals encode information it creates two types of memory representations: (1) a verbatim memory trace, which consists of precise details; and (2) a fuzzy trace, or gist, which is the central idea of the information
  
  

• When we retrieve something from our mental "data bank," we search our store of memory to find the relevant information.
• An item's position on a list also affects how easy or difficult it will be to remember it. In the serial position effect, recall is better for items at the beginning and end of a list than for items in the middle.
• The primacy effect is that items at the beginning of a list tend to
  be remembered. The recency effect is that items at the end of the list also tend to be remembered. it also applies not only to lists but also with events
• Another factor that affects retrieval is the nature of the cues people use to prompt their memory
• Another consideration in understanding retrieval is the encoding specificity principle, which says that associations formed at the time of encoding or learning tend to be effective retrieval cues.
• The concept of encoding specificity is compatible with our earlier discussion of elaboration: The more elaboration children use in encoding information, the better their memory of the information will be.
• Yet another aspect of retrieval is the nature of the retrieval task itself. Recall is a memory task in which individuals must retrieve previously learned information, as students must do for fill-in-the-blank or essay questions.

• Cue-dependent forgetting is retrieval failure caused by a lack of effective retrieval cues. The notion of cue-dependent forgetting can explain why a student might fail to retrieve a needed fact for an exam even when he is sure he "knows" the information.
• with interference theory, which states that we forget not because we actually lose memories from storage but rather because other information gets in the way of what we are trying to remember.
• decay theory, new learning involves the creation of a neurochemical "memory trace," which will eventually disintegrate. Thus, decay theory suggests that the passage of time is responsible for forgetting. memories decay at different speeds like if a memory has emotional ties it will last longer 

• Experts are better at noticing important features of problems and contexts that
  novices may ignore. Experts also have superior recall of information in their area of expertise.
• In areas where children are knowledgeable and competent, their memory is often extremely good. In fact, it often exceeds that of adults who are novices in that content area.
• Expert teachers recognize features and patterns that are not noticed by novice
  teachers

• Experts' knowledge is organized around important ideas or concepts more than novices' knowledge is. This provides experts with a much deeper understanding of knowledge than novices have
• Experts in a particular area usually have far more elaborate networks of
  information about that area than novices do
• The implications for teaching are that too often a curriculum is designed in a way that makes it difficult for students to organize knowledge in meaningful ways. This especially occurs when there is only superficial coverage of facts before moving on to the next topic.

• Retrieval of relevant information can range from taking a lot of effort to being
  fluent and almost effortless. Experts retrieve information in an almost effortless, automatic manner, whereas novices expend a great deal of effort in retrieving information
• Students' fluency or automaticity is an important issue for teachers to attend to when designing instructional tasks. This is due to cognitive load or the amount of working memory used to complete a task
• cognitive load theory suggests that there are three kinds of cognitive load teachers should consider that may impact whether the student learns the material or not. These are intrinsic load (related to the complexity of the task/material), germane load (related to the working memory resources needed to learn the material), and extrinsic load (related to the load imposed by the instructional procedures).

• An important aspect of expertise "is whether some ways of organizing knowledge are better" than others for helping people to be "flexible and adaptive to new situations"
• innovation and efficiency are the two main dimensions of one model of
  adaptive expertise
• Experts characterized by efficiency can quickly retrieve and apply information in skillful ways to explain something or solve a problem. Experts characterized by innovation are able to move away from efficiency, at least on a short-term basis, and unlearn previous routines.
• adaptive experts possess a balance of efficiency and innovation
• Adaptive experts are motivated to learn from others. This may not be that difficult when the learning involves making a teacher's existing routines and practices more efficient.
• adaptive expertise is a critical aspect of being an outstanding teacher.

• Experts use effective strategies in understanding the information in their area of expertise and in advancing it
• acclimation to describe the initial stage of expertise in a particular domain (such as English, biology, or mathematics). At this stage, students have limited and fragmented knowledge that restricts their ability to detect the difference between accurate and inaccurate and relevant and tangential information.
• teachers need to guide students in determining what content is central and what is peripheral, as well as what is accurate and well supported and what is inaccurate and unsupported.

• a students learning benefits when a teacher talks with them about the importance of reviewing what they are learning. they did better studying over time then just cramming

• When children ask themselves questions about what they have read or about an activity, they expand the number of associations with the information they need to retrieve.

• Taking good notes from either a lecture or a text benefits learning. Give children some practice in taking notes and then evaluate their note taking.
• good strategies would be summarizing, outlining, and using concept maps 

• one of the earliest systems was called SQ3R which stand for Survey, question, read, recite, and review then another R was added to it: "Reflect"

• Deliberate practice involves practice that is at an appropriate level of difficulty for the individual, provides corrective feedback, and allows opportunities for repetition
• Many individuals give up on becoming an expert because they won't put forth the effort required to engage in extensive deliberate practice over a number of years.
• extensive practice requires considerable motivation. Students who are not
  motivated to practice for long hours are unlikely to become experts in a particular area.

• A number of psychologists who study expertise stress that it requires not only
  deliberate practice and motivation but also talent. A number of abilities-music and athletic, for example-seem to have a heritable component

• Pedagogical content knowledge includes ideas about common difficulties that
  students have as they try to learn a content area; typical paths students must take to understand the area; and strategies for helping students overcome the difficulties they experience.
• Expert teachers are good at monitoring students' learning and assessing
  students' progress. They also know what types of difficulties students are likely to encounter, are aware of students' existing knowledge, and use this awareness to teach at the right level and to make new information meaningful.
  
  

• Another way that you can help children process information more
  effectively is by encouraging them to examine what they know about how their
  mind processes information
• Metacognitive knowledge involves monitoring and reflecting on one's current or recent thoughts. This includes both factual knowledge, such as knowledge about the task, one's goals, or oneself, and strategic knowledge, such as how and when to use specific procedures to solve problems.
• Metacognitive activity occurs when students consciously adapt and manage their thinking strategies during problem solving and purposeful thinking.
• Metacognition helps children to perform many academic tasks more effectively. Metacognitive skills also have been taught to students to help them solve problems

• there are many studies focused on children's metamemory, the knowledge of how memory works

• young children's metamemory is limited. They don't understand that related items are easier to remember than unrelated ones or that remembering the gist of a story is easier than remembering information verbatim
• Preschool children also have little appreciation for the importance of memory
  cues, such as "It helps when you can think of an example of it."

• theory of mind, which refers to awareness of one's own mental processes and the mental processes of others. Studies of theory of mind view the child as "a thinker who is trying to explain, predict, and understand people's thoughts, feelings, and utterances"
• Researchers are increasingly discovering that children's theory of mind is linked to cognitive processes and disabilities.
• Language development likely plays a prominent role in the increasingly reflective nature of theory of mind as children go through the childhood years. Researchers have found that differences in children's language skills predict
  performance on theory of mind tasks
• Among other factors that influence children's theory of mind development are
  advances in prefrontal cortex functioning, engaging in make-believe play, and various aspects of social interaction
• children's theory of mind changes as they go through childhood and adolescence. Adolescents have more resources available to them then children do which makes them more skilled at directing those resources 
  
  

• Michael Pressley and his colleagues developed a metacognitive model called the Good Information-Processing model. It emphasizes that competent cognition results from a number of interacting factors. These include strategies, content knowledge, motivation, and metacognition.
• It has three main steps: 1. Children are taught by parents or teachers to use a particular strategy. With practice, they learn about its characteristics and advantages for learning specific knowledge. 2. Teachers mav demonstrate similarities and differences in multiple strategies in a particular domain, such as math, which motivates students to see shared features of different strategies. This leads to better relational knowledge. 3. At this point, students recognize the general benefits of using strategies, which produces general strategy knowledge.

• the key to education is helping students learn a rich repertoire of strategies that produce solutions to problems. Good thinkers routinely use strategies and effective planning to solve problems. Good thinkers also know when and where to use strategies
• Presley and his colleagues argue that when students are given instruction about effective strategies, they often can apply strategies that they previously have not used on their own. They emphasize that students benefit when the teacher models the appropriate strategy and overtly verbalizes its steps.
• Just having students practice the new strategy is usually not enough for them to continue to use the strategy and transfer it to new situations. For effective
  maintenance and transfer, encourage students to monitor the effectiveness of the new strategy relative to their use of old strategies by comparing their performance on tests and other assessments
• An important aspect of metacognition is monitoring how well one is performing
  on a task. This might involve becoming aware that one
  has not studied enough for a test or needs to reread a particular section of a
  chapter to understand it better.
• Learning how to use strategies effectively often takes time. Initially, it takes time to learn to execute the strategies, and it requires guidance and support from the teacher. Practice means that students use the effective strategy over and over again until they perform it automatically.
• Most children benefit from generating a variety of alternative strategies and experimenting with different approaches to a problem and discovering what works well, when, and where.
• teachers' use of strategy instruction is far less complete and intense than what is needed for students to learn how to use strategies effectively.
• many strategies depend on prior knowledge.
  
  

• the goals of education is not just simply filling students heads with facts and information but it help then learn how to learn
• Productive Struggle: When the learner has developed the necessary strategies for working through something difficult. The mental activity that takes place when students are in their zone of proximal development.
• a dependent learner is not able to do complex, school-oriented learning tasks without lots of support 
• they don't struggle because their race, language, or poverty but because they aren't given the opportunities in the classroom to develop the habits of mind to prepare then for harder classes
• Mindset: A set of mental attitudes that determines how one will interpret and respond to situations. See also fixed mindset and Growth mindset.
• Culturally Responsive Teaching: The process of using familiar cultural information and processes to  scaffold learning. Emphasizes communal orientation. Focused on relationships, cognitive scaffolding, and critical social awareness.
• Another definition for CRT: an educator's ability to recognize students' cultural displays of learning and meaning making and respond positively and constructively with teaching moves that use cultural knowledge as a scaffold to connect what students know to new concepts and content. 
• Information Processing: the brain's process of turning inert facts and content into usable knowledge. includes three stages: input, elaboration, and application. Active information processing stimulates brain growth 
• There have been many different studies performed that say that CRT can strengthen student connectedness with school and enhance learning. 
• some schools teach cross-cultural, language, and academic development certification and they support teachers in their first years but they have little to no continued support 
• Some people look at CRT as a way to reduce behavior problems or as a way to motivate students but ignores the support to cognitive development   

• culturally responsive teaching is not just a "bag of tricks" or a "cheat sheet" it is an approach that is rooting in a learning theory and cognitive science 
• Intellective Capacity: Refers to a student's malleable information processing power. Also called fluid intelligence or intellectual competence. Intellective capacity grows through neuroplasticity.
• ready for rigor framework is designed to help teachers who are struggling to understand the basic concepts of CRT and learning the instructional moves associated with them. RFR uses the aid of neuroscience to deepen understanding 
• RFR organizes key ideas of teaching capacity building that helps help students move from being dependent learners to independent learners 

• The RFR framework has four separate practice areas: Awareness, learning partnerships, information processing, and community building. when put together they create the conditions where students can actively engage and take ownership of their learning process

• successfully teaching students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds, involves more than just applying specialized teaching techniques 
• placing instruction within the larger sociopolitical context
• It helps teachers: locate their own socio-political position, sharpen and tune their cultural lens, and learn to manage their own social-emotional response to student diversity.

• building trust with students across differences so that the teacher is able to create social-emotional partnership for deeper learning
• Teachers build the capacity to: establish a connection with students that build mutual trust and respect, leverage the trust bond to help students rise to higher expectations, give feedback in emotionally intelligent ways so students are able to take it in and act on it, and hold students to high standards while offering then new intellectual challenges 

• knowing how to strengthen and expand students intellective capacity so that they can engage in deeper, more complex learning
• in this area teachers learn how to: understand how culture impacts the brain's information processing, orchestrate learning so it builds student's brain power in culturally congruent ways, use brain-based information processing strategies common to oral cultures

• creating an environment that feels socially and intellectually safe for dependent learners to stretch themselves and take risks.
• In this area, teachers understand to: integrate universal cultural elements and themes into the classroom. use cultural practices and orientations to create a socially and intellectually safe space, and set up rituals and routines that reinforce self-directed learning and academic identity

• just as students needs to have rich background for comprehension and problem-solving, teachers need an adequate background knowledge and useable information in order to know how to apply CRT tools and strategies
• teachers also have to be aware of their beliefs regarding equity and culture 

• Culture is the way that every brain makes sense of the world. everyone regardless of race or ethnicity has a culture

• there are three levels: Surface, shallow, and deep

• made up of observable and concrete elements of culture such as food, dress, music, and holidays. 
• has a low emotional charge so that changes don't create anxiety in a person or group

• Made up of unspoken rules around everyday social interactions and norms, such as: courtesy, attitudes towards elders, nature of friendship, concepts of time, personal space between people, nonverbal communication, rules about eye contact, or appropriate touching.
• nonverbal communication builds rapport and trust between people comes out of shallow culture 
• Rapport: A close and harmonious relationship between people characterized by a sense of connection, personal regard, and trust.
• some people can interpret these things as disrespectful, hostile, or offensive 

• made up of tacit knowledge and unconscious assumptions that govern our worldview. also contains cosmology (view of good or bad) that guides ethics, spirituality, health, and theories of group harmony. it also governs how we all learn
• Mental Model: A mental model is an explanation of someone's thought process about how something works in the real world. It is one's internal representation of the surrounding world. Mental models share our behavior, decision making, and relating to others. See also Schema.
• deep level culture, the brain encodes itself with the worldview we see. the worldview guides out behaviors even when we change our geography 
• Schema: A schema is a cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information. Schemas can be useful because they allow us to take shortcuts in interpreting the vast amount of information that is available in our environment. However, these mental frameworks also cause us to exclude pertinent information to instead focus only on things that confirm our preexisting beliefs and ideas.
• the key to understanding how culture guides the brain during CRT kids in focusing on deep culture. rather than focusing on the visible aspects of culture we have to focus on the roots: worldview, core beliefs and group values.
• Cultural Archetype: It is a set of similar beliefs, values, or behaviors that show up in different cultures.
• while there may be a number of different cultures in a classroom, when we look closer, we can see the patterns that unite some cultures

• there are two different archetypes for CRT: Collectivism and Individualism 
• Collectivism and Individualism reflect the different ways that the brain organizes itself
• our brains were wired to favor being in a community but have since switched over to working and living cooperatively. people liked living individually 
• the archetypes collectivism and individualism as a way of understanding the general cultural orientation among diverse students in the classroom. simply a starting point for building on the shared culture of the students 

• some cultures relay on spoken word over written words to convey, preserve, and reproduce knowledge from generation to generation
• oral: telling stories, songs, chants, proverbs, and poetry. groups with oral tradition record and sustain their cultures by word of mouth
• written does not require person-to-person interaction 

• teachers also have to be able to name and acknowledge the larger sociopolitical context schools operate within
• Sociopolitical context: A term used to describe the series of mutually reinforcing policies and practices across social, economic, and political domains that contribute to disparities and unequal opportunities for people of color in housing, transportation, education, and health care, to name a few. These unequal opportunities result in unequal outcomes along racial and class lines.
• There are two key components of the sociopolitical context: implicit racial bias and structural racialization. Together they reinforce each other like bookends and hold a system of inequality in place that doesn't require overt racism or any racist actors at all to maintain it.
• inequality takes the form of seemingly benign institutional practices or structures that reduce and limit opportunities for people of color, poor people, and immigrants.
• Implicit bias: Refers to the unconscious attitudes and stereotypes that shape our responses to certain groups especially around race, class, and language. Implicit bias operates involuntarily, often without one's awareness or intentional control. Implicit bias is not implicit racism.
• implicit bias is not just overt racism that's hidden on purpose. Implicit bias is not implicit racism.
• Structural racialization: Refers to the ways in which supposedly race neutral practices across social, political, and economic institutions created radicalized outcomes. See also sociopolitical context.
• If we look at our society as a complex system of
  organizations, institutions, individuals, processes, and policies, we can see how many factors interact to create and perpetuate social, economic, and political structures that are harmful to people of color and to our society
  as a whole.
• The impact of structural radicalization across institutions over time creates a domino effect that leads to unearned disadvantages that obscure the real source of the inequity.
• We designed No Child Left Behind to focus on closing the gap in test scores between Black and White students because we believed we needed to help children of color and English learners better prepare for the test.
• Policy makers were not willing to look beyond that overly simplistic symptom of the achievement gap, test scores. Research findings pointed to the domino effect resulting from the lack of federally funded quality childcare and preschool for children of color.
• Structural radicalization doesn't happen just outside of school. The school-to-prison pipeline is actually a manifestation of structural radicalization.
• Yet, in education, we subject our neediest dependent learners to inadequate instruction given their needs, or we allow them to lose valuable instructional time because of questionable discipline practices.
• Over time, because of structural racialization in education, we have seen a new type of intellectual apartheid happening in schools, creating dependent learners who cannot access the curriculum and independent learners who have had the opportunity to build the cognitive skills to do deep learning on their own.

• Some educators confuse the concept of the sociopolitical context with the popular notion of a culture of poverty. As a part of being aware as a culturally responsive teacher it is critical to understand the difference.
• The idea of a culture of poverty reinforces stereotypes of poor families, a disproportionate number who are families of color, as unmotivated, not caring about education, or involved in illegal activities as a lifestyle choice. There's considerable research that clearly states that people in poverty are not, in fact, lazier. less likely to value education, or more likely to be substance abusers than their wealthier counterparts. Yet, implicit racial bias reinforces the notion of people of color willingly living in poverty or unmotivated to change their circumstances.
• Poverty is not a culture. Most families are trapped in poverty and do not willingly embrace it as a way of life. The cycle of poverty has been defined as a phenomenon where poor families become trapped in poverty for at least three generations
• Coping skills are mistaken for norms and beliefs. What appears to be a "culture"- norms, beliefs, and behaviors that are transmitted from one generation to another are more accurately coping and survival mechanisms that help marginalized communities. 
• Poor people do not normalize or glorify negative aspects of living in poverty. Despite images we commonly see in the popular media, behaviors such as drug use, violence, or out of wedlock births are not normalized and embraced as lifestyle choices by poor people.
• Deficit thinking defines students and their families by their weaknesses rather than their strengths, suggesting that these weaknesses stem from low intelligence, poor moral character, or inadequate social skills.

• Understanding culture, recognizing cultural archetypes, and recognizing the sociopolitical context are about laying the foundation for being a culturally responsive teacher.
• Getting dependent students of color ready for rigor begins with our awareness of current reality and acknowledgment of our past racial history. This understanding will give us a better context for supporting the social-emotional needs of dependent learners.

• If we want to use culturally responsive teaching to support the cognitive development of dependent learners, we have to know how the brain uses culture to make sense of the world.

• The complex architecture of our brains developed in three layers, from the bottom up, like the floors of a house. Each one is layered on top of the other, with the first layer being the oldest.
• These three parts of the brain do not operate independently of one another. Instead, they do a synchronized dance. They communicate by sending electromagnetic and chemical messages back and forth

• The first brain layer is the reptilian region. It is 500 million years old.
• It's made up of the same two structures found in the entire reptilian brain: the brainstem and the cerebellum. I don't think so. It only reacts. It is always on, even when we are sleeping. The lizard brain allows you to smell smoke or hear a loud suspicious noise when you are asleep. It is what wakes you up.
• It controls automatic functions, such as breathing, heartbeat, body temperature, digestion, blood pressure, and balance. It is able to increase heartbeat, blood flow, and other automatic body functions if it gets signals that danger is near, or it can slow down responses if we are just chilling out with friends.
• it houses the reticular activating system 
• Reticular Activating System (RAS): Located in the reptilian region of the brain, it is the portal through which nearly all information enters the brain. (Smells are the exception; they go directly into your brain's emotional area.) It filters all incoming stimuli and decides what to pay attention to and what to ignore. Novelty, curiosity, changes in the environment, surprise, danger, and movement all capture the attention of the RAS. It sends signals to the amygdala when it detects a social or physical threat.

• Stacked right on top of the reptilian region is the limbic layer. This layer is only present in mammals. It is also called the emotional brain. This region links emotions, behavior, and cognition together
• Its primary roles are to help us learn from experience, manage our emotions, and remember. The limbic brain records memories of experiences and behaviors that produced positive and negative results in the past, so a person knows what threats to avoid or what rewards to pursue.
• There are three specific structures of the limbic brain that help it manage memories and emotions: thalamus, hippocampus, and the amygdala
• Thalamus acts as the brain's communication dispatch hub.
• Hippocampus acts as the brain's background knowledge data bank. It houses the memory systems: short term memory - A limited-capacity memory system in which information is retained for as long as 30 seconds, unless the information is rehearsed, in which case it can be retained longer. Working memory - The working memory is the area in the brain where new information is coupled with existing knowledge. The elaboration stage of information processing takes place mainly in the working memory. And Long-Term Memory: Long-term memory is created when short-term memory is strengthened through review and meaningful association with existing funds of knowledge. This strengthening results in a physical change in the structure of neuronal circuits, creating more gray matter in the brain. 
• Amygdala acts as the brain's guard dog. The amygdala is an almond-shaped structure deep inside the limbic layer of the brain. It has the "authority" to bypass the
  the brain's communication dispatch hub in the thalamus and send distress signals directly to the lizard brain in the form of the stress hormone cortisol (the primary stress hormone. Chronic exposure to cortisol because of the stress reduces working memory and suppresses the body's immune system). We call this bypass an amygdala hijack (The process when the amygdala is in an active state of stress, fear, or anxiety. It signals the body to release the stress hormone, cortisol. The cortisol blocks rational thinking and temporarily reduces the capacity of the working memory making learning difficult).

• The newest brain layer is only 3-4 million years old. Compared to the reptilian region, it is slow in processing information but really, really smart. It is home to our executive function. Executive function is the command center of the brain.
• It oversees our thinking and manages our working memory. It controls planning, abstract thinking, organization, and self-regulation. It also houses our imagination. it also houses an endless capacity to learn. It is here in the neocortex that we have the chance to build our brain power, also called our intellectual capacity.

• The cellular structures are made up of special nerves called neurons that are the brain's building blocks.
• Neurons are the messengers that carry information back and forth across each region of the brain. The brain contains tens of billions of neurons. They are that stuff we call gray matter in the brain.
• Because of neuroplasticity, the brain is able to grow an
  unlimited amount of gray matter in response to our continuous learning.
• Neuroplasticity: refers to the capacity of the brain to change its structure and reorganize itself in response to injury, experience, or challenge. associated with expanded learning capacity
• Within the neuron, the baton takes the form of electrical impulses and chemical interactions. They exchange information through the short, fingerlike extensions called dendrites. Dendrites are treelike extensions at the beginning of a neuron that help increase its surface area. These tiny tentacles receive information from other neurons and transmit electrical stimulation. Dendrites grow in response to learning, especially a challenging task. The more dendrites the neuron generates the more brain power it creates.
• The more dendrites we have, the more information that the neurons can pick up
• "When the brain is learning something new it clusters neurons together to create a neural pathway, similar to a footpath through a forest.
• The brain helps neurons talk to each other faster along these neural pathways through the process of myelination (The formation of the myelin sheath around the body of a neuron to increase the speed of electrical impulses contains information.), where it wraps around the myelin: The fatty substance that covers and protects nerves. Myelin acts like a conductor in an electrical system, ensuring that messages sent along the neuron are not lost as they travel to the next neuron and dendrites.
• Conversely, when we don't practice or use new dendrites shortly after a learning episode, our brain prunes them by starving them and then reabsorbing them.

• The last brain structure to understand is the nervous system. we talk about how fast it can multitask- pumping blood, checking blood pressure, digesting food, all the while walking, noticing the beautiful sunset, and keeping an eye on the dog we just let off the leash
• The nervous system is just an extension of the other brain
  structures. It is constantly picking up information from our environment and sending it back to the brain for interpretation and action.
• With signals constantly coming from our RAS in our lizard brain and the amygdala in the limbic region (The limbic is the second brain layer. Also called the Malian brain. It is involved in regulation of emotion, memory and processing complex socioemotional communication. The amygdala is located here), our body and brain are at work 24/7 scanning the environment for clues and cues to determine whether or not we are safe.
• In social settings, this ongoing process of trying to sniff
  Our danger has been called neuroception (Describes the process our brain uses to distinguish whether situations or people are safe, dangerous, or life threatening. The autonomic nervous system, particularly the polyvagal nerve, is responsible for controlling neuroception. See also safety-threat detection system), our unconscious safety-threat detection system (Our brains system to help carry out its prime directive: Minimize threats and maximize well-being. See also Neuroception). This safety-threat detection system works mainly through the body's autonomic nervous system (This is the portion of the nervous system comprising the spinal cord and brain. It includes the sympathetic nervous system, parasympathetic nervous system, and the polyvagal nervous system). three major branches:
• The parasympathetic nervous system. It is focused on keeping us relaxed and seeks well-being by satisfying our needs for food, shelter, social relationships, and sex. naturally makes dopamine (A chemical in the brain associated with attention and reward-stimulated learning. Our brains release dopamine when we are playing, laughing, exercising, and receiving acknowledgment for achievement.)
• The sympathetic nervous system. This system is focused on keeping us alert and ready to react to avoid danger by fight, flight, or freeze.
• The polyvagal nervous system. It is our "social engagement system" and is focused on keeping us connected to others. Releases hormones like oxytocin (a neurotransmitter that stimulates our sense of connection with others. It is called the bonding hormone.)
• An important takeaway is that it's through the nervous system that individuals build the physical foundation for positive, receptive relationships.
• When anyone experiences others in an environment like a classroom that is inattentive or hostile, the body picks up that information through the autonomic nervous system and sends it up to the RAS and amygdala.
• When we look at the stress some students experience in the classroom because they belong to marginalized communities because of race, class. language, or gender, we have to understand their safety-threat detection system is already cued to be on the alert for social and psychological threats based on past experience.

• When you understand these brain rules, it becomes easier to understand how the brain uses culture to interpret threats and opportunities. they all work together and never stand alone 

• We cannot downplay students' need to feel safe and valued in the classroom. The brain will not seek to connect with others if it perceives them to be threatening to its social or psychological well-being based on what they say and do.
• As a result, the amygdala stays on alert, trying to detect other microaggressions. Microaggressions are the subtle, everyday verbal and nonverbal slights, snubs, or insults which communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative messages to people of color based solely on their marginalized group membership.
• As a culturally responsive teacher you have to familiarize yourself with common actions or conditions that make students feel unsafe, even if they cannot articulate this sense of threat. dependent learners who don't feel supported are especially vulnerable to feeling threatened.

• the brain is wired to scan for threats unless we are in positive relationships 

• Cultures with a strong oral tradition rely heavily on the brain's memory and social engagement systems to process new learning.
• These elements help build neural pathways and activate myelination.

• Before we can be motivated to learn what is in front of us, we must pay attention to it.

• Our limbic brain creates schemas that operate as background knowledge.
• All learners have to connect new content to what they
  already know. What we already know is organized according to our cultural experiences, values, and concepts.

• The brain's main purpose is to get smarter at surviving and thriving in life. Brain growth is stimulated when we have to figure out something new, engage in a complex task, or complete a puzzle.
• Culturally responsive teaching is also about empowerment and interrupting teaching practices that keep certain students dependent learners.

• Dependent learners experience a great deal of stress and anxiety in the classroom as they struggle with certain learning tasks. This anxiety is amplified when they feel marginalized or unsupported because of their race, gender, or language.

• culturally responsive teaching isn't a set of engagement strategies you use on students. Instead, think of it as a mindset, a way of looking at the world.
• The true power of culturally responsive teaching comes from being comfortable in your own skin because you are not a neutral party in the process. You can never take yourself out of the equation.
• developing the right mindset, engaging in self-reflection, checking our implicit biases, practicing social-emotional awareness, and holding an inquiry stance regarding the impact of our interactions on students.
• Before you can leverage diversity as an asset in the classroom, you must reflect on the challenges that can interfere with open acceptance of students who are different from you in background, race, class, language, or gender.

• One challenge is learning how to access and shift you
  implicit biases.
• I'm afraid that you will have to talk about sensitive issues such as race, racism, classism, sexism, or any other kind of "-ism." I am afraid that this conversation will make you vulnerable and open to some type of emotional or physical attack. But this fear is not real. It is just your amygdala's ploy to get you to stay in your comfort zone.
• It thinks that the safest place for us is deep in the center of our comfort zone surrounded by the moat of
  our unconscious, implicit biases.
• It will try to keep you in check with narratives such as "vou need to be colorblind, not calling attention to racial, cultural, or language differences" or "we are all the same inside. Skin color doesn't matter anymore." accept the challenge of venturing into the unknown with an open mind and heart.

• Intention is the starting point for preparing yourself for improving your culturally responsive teaching practice.
• The commitment to be an effective educator of culturally diverse dependent learners builds the stamina and courage to persevere when the process gets challenging.
• To make the path feel less uncharted, find real and virtual mentors who have already walked the path.

• The next stage is to examine your own cultural identity. Culture is like the air we breathe, permeating all we do. And the hardest culture to examine is often our own, because it shapes our actions in ways that seem invisible and normal.
• What feels "normal," is molded by deeply ingrained social habits and ways of valuing and evaluating what we are scarcely aware of.
• A critical first step for teachers is to understand how their own cultural values shape their expectations in the classroom
• A student's different way of being or doing can be perceived as a deviation from the norm and therefore problematic if we don't recognize that it is just different.
• This inward reflection means being willing to listen
  and change in order to respond positively and constructively to the student who may be culturally different in some way.
• teachers have to work through: identifying their cultural frame of reference, widening their cultural aperture, and identifying their key triggers

• The first step in making the familiar strange is to take an inquiry stance toward the examination of your cultural identity.
• they ask teachers to investigate aspects of their cultural identity after they have encountered cultural conflict in the classroom, which is often too late

• Create time and space to work your way through aspects of surface, shallow, and deep culture for clues about your own culture.
• Don't try to answer these questions in one sitting. Instead, plan to sit with the questions before trying to answer them.
• As you develop a greater sense of your cultural frames of reference, you should begin to have a clearer picture of your cultural self

• We all operate from a set of cultural frames of reference. The challenge is that if we routinely interpret other people's actions solely through our personal cultural frames, we run the risk of misinterpreting their actions or intentions.
• The solution is to broaden our body of explanations and interpretations of student actions.
• So we have to develop a process that allows us to expand our ability to recognize the different ways things are done in other cultures.
• three-part process for widening our interpretative aperture that can serve as an internal protocol: description, interpretation, and evaluation.
• Description- The first step is to simply describe what you see.
• Interpretation- The next step involves interpreting what is going on.
• Evaluation- The last step in the process involves assigning positive or negative significance to the action based on our initial interpretation.
• Most culturally responsive teachers recognize the need to develop their observation skills so they can effectively describe what is happening during an interaction with a student or when watching a scenario play out between students and not jump to conclusions.
• Some tips to help with ^

• When we feel a threat of any sort--including threats to our belief systems-we are vulnerable to an amygdala hijack. Remember your RAS acts like the brain's emotional "smoke detector," always scanning for things that might cause social embarrassment or emotional pain when we are communicating cross-culturally.
• We all get hijacked at times, but culturally responsive teachers know themselves well enough to anticipate situations that might trigger them.
• A key readiness skill or capacity the culturally responsive
  the teacher develops the ability to manage her emotions and reframe potential threats.

• An important part of identifying your triggers is recognizing universal triggers that are hardwired into the brain.
• There are five elements of social interaction that activate strong threats and rewards in the brain, thus influencing how we react in given situations: standing, certainty, connection, control, and equity

• Self-management involves being aware of one's feelings and the ability to use this awareness as information to manage and adjust one's emotional state.
• we know emotions are contagious, so if one person
  in the classroom gets emotionally hijacked, it's likely others will be infected with anxiety, resistance, or disengagement.
• Ways to calm Amygdala: Identify what sets you off, label your feelings when they come up, Create an "early warning system."

• strategy for gaining control of our emotions when we feel triggered or our buttons have been pushed.
• Stop. Observe, Detach and Awaken. The strategy is based on neuroscience findings that tell us that if we are able to put as little as 10 seconds in-between the time we get triggered and our reaction.
  
  

• In culturally responsive teaching, relationships are as important as the curriculum.
• Even on high achieving students of color positive relationships help them reach their fullest potential under less stress
• Maintaining healthy relationships became very important so one wasn't ejected from the protection of the village.
• At the core of positive relationships is trust. Caring is the way that we generate the trust that builds relationships.
• Trust between teachers and students is the effective glue that binds educational relationships together. Not trusting teachers has several consequences for students.
• Neuroscience tells us the brain feels safest and relaxed when we are connected to others we trust to treat us well.
• Oxytocin makes us want to build a trusting relationship with the other person we are interacting with.
• Ironically, researchers found that when participants in one study felt they had won the trust of another, their own brains responded by producing oxytocin.
• To make sure we connect with others, our brains developed mirror neurons to keep us in sync with each other.
• These special brain cells prompt us to mimic or "mirror" the behavior.

• Building a culture of care that helps dependent learners move toward independence requires what I call a learning partnership (The learning partnership is a teacher-student relationship in which the teacher builds trust and becomes the student's ally in order to help the student reach  a higher level of achievement).
• This relationship is anchored in affirmation, mutual respect, and validation (Refers to the explicit recognition and acknowledgment of historical institutional racism, negative stereotyping, and generalizations that impact culturally and linguistically diverse students) that breeds an unshakable belief that marginalized students not only can but will improve their school achievement
• Each phase acts as a stepping-stone to the next. First, building rapport focuses on establishing an emotional connection and building trust. In the alliance phase, we use this emotional connection to create a partnership
  that has the teacher and student coming together as a team to tackle a specific learning challenge.
• Because there's trust, the teacher can provide a degree of "push" or challenge without having the student experience an "amygdala hijack"

• Rapport is generally defined as a "sympathetic connection" with another person that results in that warm, friendly feeling you get when you are in sync.
• Too often we confuse affirmation with building up a student's self esteem. As educators. We think it's our job to make Students of color, English learners or poor students feel good about themselves.
• Affirmation and rapport are really about building trust, not self esteem.
• Trust, therefore, frees up the brain for other activities such as creativity, learning, and higher order thinking.
• Most often mistrust builds because a student or parent doesn't feel acknowledged, affirmed, or cared for.

• affirmation and validation are two practices that undergird all efforts to operationalize personalization and rapport building.
• Affirming is simply acknowledging the personhood of each student, appreciating all aspects of them, especially those culturally specific traits that have been negated by the dominant culture.

• You can try to speed the trust-building process, but feeling connected grows slowly and requires time for people to get to know each other.

• Listening communicates a sense of respect for and an interest in the student's contributions.
• Research shows that 70% of communication is nonverbal. So listening doesn't just mean hearing the words but listening to the emotional quality of the conversation.
• Practicing a pedagogy of listening may be simple but it isn't always easy. Unfortunately, the kind of empathetic, attentive listening that builds rapport is not what we typically do in most classrooms on a day-to-day basis.
• building trust through acts of caring and authentic listen-in, we can build trust by being more authentic, vulnerable, and in sync with our students.
• The trust generators are universal in their ability to help us feel an instant sense of connection. It depends on your personality, experience, the age of the children you teach, and your own understanding of their culture, to
  Name a few.
• Practicing vulnerability requires that we be willing to let down our guard a bit. The most powerful thing we can do to create a culture of caring is to allow ourselves
  to be seen as human beings,
• Selective vulnerability is best employed through storytelling. Sharing your story with students makes you more human and vulnerable.

• Our ultimate goal is to position dependent learners so that they will take the intellectual risk and stretch into their zone of proximal development
• building trust is designed to help dependent learners avoid the stress and anxiety that comes with feeling
  lost and unsupported at school.
• it's important to not assume that everything is fine 
• Here are some steps for assessing current reality in your classroom.

• Concepts group objects, events, and characteristics on the basis of common properties. 
• Concepts help us simplify, summarize, and organize information
• concepts aid the process of remembering, making it more efficient
• students form concepts through direct experiences with objects and events in their world 

• learning the key features, attributes, or characteristics of the concept 

1.  Define the concept. As part of defining it, link it to a superordinate concept and identify its key features or characteristics. A superordinate concept is a larger class into which it fits. Thus, in specifying the key features of the concept of dinosaur, you might want to mention the larger class into which it fits: reptiles.
2.  Clarify terms in the definition. Make sure that the key features or characteristics are well understood. Thus, in describing the key features of the concept of dinosaur, it is important for students to know what a reptile is-usually an egg-laying vertebrate that has an external covering of scales or horny plates and breathes by means of lungs.
3.  Give examples to illustrate the key features or characteristics. With regard to dinosaurs, one might give examples and descriptions of different types of dinosaurs, such as a triceratops, an apatosaur, and a stegosaur. The concept can be further clarified by giving examples of other reptiles that are not dinosaurs, such as snakes, lizards, crocodiles, and turtles. Indeed, giving nonexamples of a concept as well as examples is often a good strategy for teaching concept formation. More examples are required when you teach complex concepts and when you work with less-sophisticated learners.
4.  Provide additional examples. Ask students to categorize concepts, explain their categorization, or have them generate their own examples of the concept (Rawson et al., 2015). Give examples of other dinosaurs, such as Tyrannosaurus, Ornitholestes, and Dimetrodon, or ask students to find more examples themselves. Also ask them to think up other nonexamples of dinosaurs, such as dogs, cats, and whales.

• categorization is important because once a concept is categorized it can take on characteristics and features from bring a member of a category 

• is a visual presentation of a concept's connections and hierarchical organization 
• students can create a map of a concept's features or characteristics that can help the better understand the concept 

• hypotheses are specific assumptions and predictions that can be tested to determine their accuracy 
• students benefit from the practice of developing hypotheses about what a concept is and is not

• individuals decide whether an item is a member of a category by comparing it with the most typical item of category 
• the more similar the item is to the prototype, the more likely it is that the individual will say the items belongs in that category and vice versa

1.  Find and Frame Problems Before you can solve a problem, you must recognize that it exists. In the past, most problem-solving exercises in school involved well-defined problems that lent themselves to specific, systematic operations that produced a well-defined solution. Today, educators increasingly recognize the need to teach students the real-world skill of identifying problems instead of just offering clear-cut problems to be solved (Radvansky & Ashcraft, 2018). Consider a student whose broad goal is to create a science-fair project. What branch of science would it be best for her to present - biology, physics, computer science, psychology? After making that decision, she'll have to narrow the problem even more. For example, which domain within psychology will she explore-perception, memory, thinking, personality? Within the domain of memory, she might pose this question: How reliable are people's memories of traumatic events they have experienced? Thus, it may take considerable exploration and refinement for the student to narrow the problem enough to generate specific solutions. Exploring such alternatives is an important part of problem solving.
2. Subgoaling: The process of setting intermediate goals that place students in a better position to reach the final goal or solution, Algorithms: Strategies that guarantee a solution to a problem, Heuristics: Strategies or rules of thumb that can suggest a solution to a problem but don’t ensure that it will work, Means-end analysis: A heuristic in which one identifies the goal (end) of a problem, assesses the current situation, and evaluates what needs to be done (means) to decrease the difference between the two conditions.
3. Evaluate Solution: Solutions Once we think we have solved a problem, we might not know whether our solution is effective unless we evaluate it. It helps to have in mind a clear criterion for determining the effectiveness of the solution.
   For example, what will be the student's criterion for effectively solving the science-fair problem? Will it be simply getting it completed? Receiving positive feedback about the project? Winning an award? Winning first place?
   Gaining the self-satisfaction of having set a goal, planned for it, and reached it?
4. Rethink and Redefine Problems and Solutions over Time: Rethink and Redefine Problems and Solutions over Time An important final step in problem solving is to continually rethink and redefine problems and solutions over time. People who are good at problem solving are motivated to improve on their past performances and to make original contributions.
   Thus, the student who completed the science-fair project can look back at the project and think about ways the project could have been improved. The student might use feedback from iudges or others who attended the fair in order to fine-tune the project for presentation again in some future venue.

• involves using a prior strategy and failing to look at a problem from a fresh, new perspective
• functional fixedness; is a type of fixation in which an individual tries to solve a problem because he or she views the elements involved solely in terms of their usually functions 
• Mental set; is a type of fixation in which an individual tries to solve a problem in a particular way that has worked in the past 
• a good strategy is to keep an open mind about such changes and monitor whether your mental set is keeping you from trying out new technologies that could make the classroom more exciting and more productive 

• it is important that a student is internally motivated to tackle a problem and persist at finding a solution 
• and important task for teachers is to devise or steer students toward problems that are meaningful to them and to encourage and support them in finding solutions 

• Emotion can facilitate or restrict problem solving. At the same time that they are highly motivated, good problem solvers are often able to control their emotions and concentrate on finding a solution to a problem. Too much anxiety or fear can especially restrict a student's ability to solve a problem. Individuals who are competent at solving problems are usually not afraid of making mistakes.

• young children lack planning which prevents them from problem solving effectively 
• during elementary and secondary school years the lack of planning improves 
• older children and adolescents become better problem solvers as they start to involve knowledge and strategies 
• older children have more complex problems which requires accumulated knowledge 

• emphasizes solving authentic problems like those that occur in daily life 
• problem-based learning is especially effective in helping students develop confidence in generating their own thinking skills 
• in problem-based learning teacher orient students on their own 

1. Phase 1: orient the student to the problem - teachers role; communicate clearly the goals of the lesson, inform students what is expected of them, and guide students to become motivated to engage in self-directed problem solving 
2. Phase 2: Organize students for study -  teachers role; help students define and organize study tasks related to the problem 
3. Phase 3: assist independent and group investigation - teachers role; encourage students to obtain appropriate information, conduct experiments, and search for explanations and solutions 
4. Phase 4: Develop and present artifacts and exhibits - teachers role; Guide students' planning and creation of appropriate artifacts such as reports and videos, and help them to share their work with others 
5. Phase 5: Analyze and evaluate the problem-solving process - teachers role; Encourage students to reflect on their investigations and the strategies and steps they used 

• in PBL students work real, meaningful problems and create tangible products that improve achievement 
• project-based learning gives more attention to the end product than problem-based learning does 

• transfer occurs when a person applies previous experiences and knowledge to learning or problem solving in a new situation
• some experts argue that the best way to ensure transfer is to "teach for it"
• they stress that transfer problems virtually are eliminated when teaching occurs in contexts where individuals need to perform 
• some strategies that can improve transfer include; giving two to more examples of a concept because one often is not enough, giving students models, things that can help them structure problem-solving and encouraging students to generate more information themselves - which will increase the likelihood they will remember what needs to be transferred. 
• More strategies include giving students well-structured cases and have them try to invent solutions for them before given a lecture on the expert solution 

• Near Transfer occurs when the classroom learning situation is similar to the one in which the initial learning took place 

• Far Transfer means the transfer of learning to a situation very different from the one in which the initial learning took place.

• Low-Road Transfer occurs when previous learning automatically, often unconsciously, transfers to another situation 
• occurs most often with highly practiced skills in which there is little need for reflective thinking 

• High-Road Transfer is conscious and effortful 
• students consciously establish connections between what they learned in a previous situation and the new situation they now face 
• implies abstracting a general rule or principle from previous experience and then applying it to the new problem in the new context 

• Forward-reaching transfer occurs when students think about how they can apply what they have learned to new situations 
• Backward-reaching transfer occurs when students look back to a previous ("old") situation for information that will help them solve a problem in a new context 

• If we fail to consider how the cultural differences of our students may be inconsistent with the traditional Euro-American school system, do not respect the cultural capital of our students, and are not responsive to culture in our teaching, then we contribute to the systemic racism that maintains the status quo. This includes the achievement gaps described in the chapter on sociocultural diversity. Without discussions about race, it will be difficult to change school practices that widen the equity gap between white students and students of color (Chapman, 2013).

• recall that constructivism emphasizes how individuals actively construct knowledge and understanding 
• social constructivist approach; emphasizes the social contexts of learning and says that knowledge is mutually built and constructed.
• Involvement with others creates opportunities for students to evaluate and refine their understanding as they are exposed to the thinking of others and as they participate in creating shared understanding
• experiences in social contexts provide an important mechanism for the development of students' thinking

• an important assumption in the social constructivist approaches. It refers to the idea that thinking is located (situated) in social and physical contexts, not within an individual's mind.
• In other words, knowledge is embedded in, and connected to, the context in which the knowledge developed

•  the technique of change the level of support over the course of a teaching session; a more-skilled person adjusts the amount of guidance to fit the students' current performance 
• researchers have found that when teachers and peers use scaffolding in collaborative learning student' learning benefits 

• a technique in which an expert stretches and supports a novice's understanding and use of a culture's skills. 
• in a cognitive apprenticeship, teachers often model strategies for students 
• Researchers have found that students' learning benefits from teachers who think of their relationship with a student as a cognitive apprenticeship, using scaffolding and guided participation to help the student learn 

• can take place; adult/child, more skilled child/less skilled child
• is an effective strategy that benefits many students, especially those who are not doing well in a subject 

• can help reduce frustrations in the classroom 
• can monitor and evaluate your class for students who might benefit from one-on-one tutoring
• Mentors can play an important role in improving some students' learning
• the guidance is accomplished through demonstration, instruction, challenge, and encouragement on a. more or less regular basis over an extended period of time 

•  A systematic reading program that emphasizes phonics, vocabulary development, and storytelling and retelling in small groups
•  A daily 90-minute reading period with students in the first through third grades being regrouped into homogeneous cross-age ability groups
•  One-on-one tutoring in reading by specially trained certified teachers who work individually with students who are reading below grade level
•  Assessments every eight weeks to determine students' reading progress, adjust reading group placement, and assign tutoring if needed
•  Professional development for teachers and tutors, which includes three days of in-service training and guidelines at the beginning of the school year, and follow-up training throughout the year
•  A family support team designed to provide parenting education and support family involvement in the school

• one student teaches another 
• encourages students in active learning and allows the classroom teacher to guide and monitor student learning as she or he moves around the classroom
• researchers have found that peer tutoring often benefits students' achievement 

• created by John F. Kennedy Center and the Department of Special Education at Peabody College at Vanderbilt University 
• In PALS, teachers identify which children require help on specific skills and who the most appropriate children are to help other children learn those skills. Using this information, teachers pair children in the class so that partners work simultaneously and productively on different activities that address the problems they are experiencing. Pairs are changed regularly so that as students work on a variety of skills, all students have the opportunity of being "coaches" and "players."
• The PALS program is highly effective with students placed at risk, especially students in the early elementary grades, ethnic minority students, and students in urban schools
• An analysis involving strict criteria for evidence of research support revealed that PALS has potentially positive outcomes for alphabetic knowledge in beginning readers

• Online peer tutoring usually begins with the teacher engaging students in online peer tutoring. Then, as students gain more experience in working together online, some of the online tutoring activities are conducted by trained, knowledgeable students.

• occurs when students work in small groups to help each other learn 
• sizes of the groups vary in size

• researchers found it can be an effective strategy for improving achievement
• When the conditions of group rewards and individual accountability are met, cooperative learning improves achievement across different grades and in tasks that range from basically skills to problem solving 

1. Group rewards are generated. Some type of recognition or reward is given to the group so that the group members can sense that it is in their best interest to help each other learn.
2.  Individuals are held accountable. Some method of evaluating a student's individual contribution, such as an individual quiz or report, needs to be used. Without this individual accountability, some students might do some "social loafing" (let other students do their work), and some might be left out because others believe that they have little to contribute.

• Cooperative learning also promotes increased interdependence and connection with other students 

• Researchers have found that cooperative learning implemented without rewards has little benefit on simple tasks such as rote learning, memorization, or basic mathematics but produces better results with more complex tasks 
• studying cooperatively has been shown to mitigate the negative effects of reward-removal on transfer

• The STAD approach (student-teams-achievement divisions)

1. the jigsaw classroom - 

• Developed by Elliot Aronson and his colleagues (1978), jigsaw I is a cooperative learning approach in which six-member teams work on material that has been broken down into parts. Each team member is responsible for a part. Members of different teams who have studied the same part convene, discuss their part, and then return to their teams, where they take turns teaching their part to other team members.
• Robert Slavin (1995) created jigsaw Il, a modified version of jigsaw I.
  Whereas jigsaw I consists of teams of six, jigsaw I usually has teams of four or five. All team members study the entire lesson rather than one part, and individual scores are combined to form an overall team score, as in STAD. After they have studied the entire lesson, students become expert on one aspect of the lesson; then students with the same topics meet in expert groups to discuss them. Subsequently, they return to their teams and help other members of the team learn the material.

• Created by David and Roger Johnson (1994), this approach has four components: (1) face-to-face interaction, (2) positive interdependence,
  (3) individual accountability, and (4) development of interpersonal group skills. Thus, in addition to Slavin's interest in achievement, the Johnsons' cooperative learning approach also focuses on socioemotional development and group interaction. In learning together, students work in four- or five-member heterogeneous groups on tasks with an emphasis on discussion and team building 

• Developed by Shlomo Sharan (1990; Sharan & Sharan, 1992), this approach involves a combination of independent learning and group work in two- to six-member groups, as well as a group reward for individual achievement. The teacher chooses a problem for the class to study, but students decide what they want to study in exploring the problem. The work is divided among the group's members, who work individually. Then the group gets together, integrating, summarizing, and presenting the findings as a group project. The teacher's role is to facilitate investigation and maintain cooperative effort. Students collaborate with the teacher to evaluate their effort. In Sharan's view, this is the way many real-world problems are solved in communities around the world.

• Students work in reciprocal pairs, taking turns summarizing information and orally presenting it to each other (Dansereau, 1988; McDonald et al.
  1985). One member of the pair presents the material. The other member listens, monitors the presentation for any mistakes, and gives feedback. Then the partner becomes the teacher and presents the next set of material while the first member listens and evaluates it.

• Positives: are increased interdependence and interaction with other students, enhanced motivation to learn, and improved learning by teaching material to others
• Negatives: some students prefer to work alone; low-achieving students may slow down the progress of high-achieving students; a few students may do most or all of the cognitive work while others do little (called "social loafing"); some students may become distracted from the group's task because they enjoy socializing; and many students lack the skills needed to collaborate effectively with others, engage in productive discussions, and explain their ideas or evaluate others' ideas effectively 

• One of the main reasons for using heterogeneous ability groups is that they benefit low-ability students, who can learn from higher-ability students.
• In heterogeneous groups, high-ability students often assume the role of "teacher" and explain concepts to other students. In homogeneous groups, high-ability students are less likely to assume this teaching role.
• One problem with heterogeneous groups is that when high-ability, low ability, and medium-ability students are included, the medium-ability students get left out to some extent; high-ability and low-ability students form teacher-student relationships, excluding medium-ability students from group interaction. Medium-ability students might perform better in groups where most or all of the students have medium abilities.

• One of the initial reasons that cooperative learning groups were formed was to improve interpersonal relations among students from different ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds.
• The hope was that interaction under conditions of equal status in cooperative groups would reduce prejudice.

• thinking Bout how to start team building at the beginning of the school year, helping students become better listeners, giving students student practice in contributing to a team product, getting students to discuss the value of a team leader, and working with team leaders to help them deal with problem situations

•   Encourager--brings out reluctant students and is a motivator
•  Gatekeeper equalizes participation of students in the group
•  Coach-helps with academic content
•  Checker--makes sure the group understands the material
•  Taskmaster--keeps the group on task
•  Recorder--writes down ideas and decisions
•  Quiet captain--monitors the group's noise level
•  Materials monitor--obtains and returns supplies
• Another way roles can be specialized is to designate some students as "summarizers" and others as "listeners." Researchers have consistently found that summarizing benefits learning more than listening, so if these roles are used, all members should get opportunities to be summarizers

• don't "sugarcoat things"
• The alliance phase of the learning partnership speaks to the realities of education in the sociopolitical context that creates unequal academic outcomes for students of color
• awareness of their own lack of academic proficiency leads to a lack of confidence as learners 
• many culturally and linguistically diverse students start to believe these skill gaps are evidence are evidence of their own innate intellectual deficits 
• learned helplessness: is the student's belief that he has no control over his ability to improve as a learner
• research shows that unconsciously teachers reinforce learned helplessness among low performing students of color
• stereotype threat: a type of racially charged amygdala hijack that happens when a student believes their failure on an assignment to rest will confirm the negative stereotype associated with their race, socio-economic status, gender or language background 
• internalized oppression: the student internalizes the negative social messages about his racial anxiety interferes with his academic performance by releasing the stress hormone cortisol which in turns reduces the amount of working memory available to him to do complex cognitive work

• validation simply means that we acknowledge the realities of inequity that impact students in and out of school and to validate the personhood of the student and legitimize those ways of speaking or being that have been branded "wrong" in mainstream school culture
• validating students is the first step toward empowering them 
• culturally and linguistically diverse students are not helpless they come from communities with rich histories of being the face of catalyst for social justice movements that have changed the face of the world 

1. the pact: is a formal agreement between teacher and student to work on a learning goal and a relational covenant between them 
2. teacher as ally and warm demander: the teacher acts as an ally to the student in his quest toward independent learning and a warm demander allow teachers to push students to take more academic risks and gain confidence 
3. student as driver of his own learning: the student commits to be an active participant in the process and taking ownership of his own learning as he works toward his learning goals 

• Ask the students to identify what he thinks is getting in the way for him around a specific learning target 
• together select a learning target that is small, specific and significant 
• set a deadline 
• set up a benchmarks
• share what you are willing to do as the student's ally 
• be explicit about your belief in his capacity to master this learning target 
• forewarn him that you will ask him to stretch himself 
• ask him to explicitly name what he intends to do as part of the partnership to meet this challenge 
• Create some type of simple ritual to mark the occasion 
• write down key agreements 

• your role as an ally in the learning partnership calls for you to know when to offer emotional comfort and care and when to not allow the students to slip into learned helplessness
• warm demander is the "combination of high expectations for academic performance that teachers place on students and supportive, instrumental relationships between students and teachers"

• kid friendly vocabulary for talking about their learning moves 
• Checklists to help hone their decision making skills during learning and focus their attention during data analysis 
• tools for tracking their own progress toward learning targets 
• easily accessible space to store their data 
• regular time to process their data 
• practice engaging in metacognitive conversations 
• a clear process for reflecting on and acting on teacher or peer feedback 

• feedback is an essential element in the culturally responsive teacher's arsenal 
• when students use feedback and are able to improve their performance or understanding, it triggers the brain's pleasure and reward centers, releasing the powerful brain chemical, dopamine 
• Formative Assignment: highlight that an assessment activity can help learning if it provides information that teachers and their students can use as feedback to measure progress and to modify their teachers and their teaching and learning activities 
• feedback stimulates the growth of neurons and dendrites in the brain

• it is instructive rather than evaluate 
• it is specific and in the right dose
• it is timely 
• it is delivered in a low stress, supportive environment 

• begin with a check-in. Have a few minutes for reconnecting. Ask about the student and what is going in his life - how he is feeling
• State explicitly the purpose of your meeting and affirmation your belief in the students capacity as a learner. Give evidence by citing progress and growth in other areas
• Validate the student's ability to master the learning target while acknowledging high demands of a task. Have the student analyze the task with you. Identify the easy parts and the harder parts
• Deliver feedback that is specific, actionable, and timely. Restate what the final goal is and what mastery looks like and then show the student where he is in relationship to the goal 
• create space for the student to react to what he has heard and how he feels about it 
• give the student specific actions to improve: new strategies, instructions on what to tweak during the execution of the task. Give feedback and action steps in writing if possible. Provide some way to track progress 
• Ask the student to paraphrase what he heard you say - what is wrong, what needs to be fixed, and how to go about fixing it
• Offer emotional encouragement and restate your belief in him. It is important not to skip this part, even if the student seems uncomfortable. He is taking it in even if he is playing it cool
• Set up a time to follow up and check progress

these four elements make up our internal mindset scripts (schema) :

• Our sense of mastery and competence as learners based on past experience and sense of preparedness

• Our belief in our ability to move about the world freely and control our external world

• Our deep belief in ourself and our ability to achieve what we put our mind and energy toward

• Our explanatory story that we tell ourselves about why we are or aren't competent learners

fixed mindset: won't take a risk

growth mindset: willing to take a chance

Socio-political Impact on Academic Mindset:

Microagressions and Negativity Bias:

• Micro assaults involve misusing power and privilege in subtle ways to marginalize students and create different outcomes based on race or class. In the classroom, a micro assault might look like giving a more severe punishment to a student of color than his white classmate who was engaged in the same behavior. Or it might look like overemphasizing military-like behavior management strategies for students of color. With younger children, it looks like excluding them from fun activities as punishment for minor infractions

• Micro Insults involve being insensitive to culturally and linguistically diverse students and trivalisings their racial and cultural identity such as note learning to pronounce a student's name or giving the student and anglicized name to make it easier on the teacher. Continually confusing two students of the same race and casually brushing it off as "they all look alike".

• Micro Invalidations involve actions that negate or nullify a person of color's experiences or realities such as ignoring each student's rich funds of knowledge. They are also expressed when we don't want to acknowledge the realities of structural radicalization or implicit bias. It takes the form of trivializing and dismissing students' experiences, telling them they are being too sensitive or accusing them of "playing the race card"

Setting the Stage for a Mind Shift:

• Validation

As an ally, a culturally responsive teacher validates students' experiences in the larger sociopolitical context.

• Self-Efficacy and the Feedback Loop

"I think I can Mindset"

• Reforming Mistakes as Information

we have to help our students see errors and self-assessment and feedback. If students view mistakes as information that helps him be more effective, they develop a growth mindset that is open to applying effort.

Stategies to Help Shift Mindset:

• Help students create a counter narrative anti their identity as learners

• use images, quotes, and poetry to ignite student's imagination about what's possible

• Notice and acknowledge students when they are acting according to the elements of academic mindset

• help students connect with their current expertise and competencies

• help students interrupt negative self-talk

Behavioral Objectives: Statements that communicate proposed changes in students' behavior to reach desired levels of performance

Bloom's taxonomy: Developed by Benjamin Bloom and colleagues; classifies educational objective into three domains-cognitive, affective, and psychomotor

Cloud Computing: Delivery of services such as servers, storage, and applications to an organization's computers and devices through the internet.

Comparative Advance Organizers: Organizers that introduce new material by connecting it with the students' prior knowledge.

Direct Instruction Approach: A structured, teacher-centered approach characterized by teacher direction and control, high teacher expectations for students' progress, maximum time spent by students on academic tasks, and efforts by the teacher to keep negative affect to a minimum.

Discovery Learning: Learning in which students construct an understanding on their own.

Essential Questions: Questions that reflect the heart of the curriculum, the most important things that students should explore and learn.

Expository Advance Organizers: Organizers that provide students with new knowledge that will orient them to the upcoming lesson.

Guided Discovery Learning: Learning in which students are encouraged to construct their understanding with the assistance of teacher-guided questions and directions.

Instructional Planning: A systematic, organized strategy for planning lessons.

Internet: A core of computer-mediated communication; a system of computer networks that operates worldwide.

Mastery Learning: Involved learning one topic or concept thoroughly before moving on to a more difficult one.

Task Analysis: Breaking down a complex task that students are to learn into its component parts.

Taxonomy: A classification system.

Web: A system for browsing internet sites that refers to the World Wide Web; named the web because it is composed of many sites that are linked together.

• Involves developing a systematic, organized strategy for lessons

• May be asked to submit your lesson plan weeks in advance

• An effective planning strategy is mapping backward, from "goals to desired performances to activities and elements of scaffolding needed to support student progress"

• You must decide what is important to include based on their goals, accessibility to particular groups, and readiness for various kinds of learning experiences

• You also have to consider the kinds of information, demonstrations, models, inquiry opportunities, discussion, and practice students need over time to understand particular concepts and develop particular skills.

Time Frames and Planning:

• Developing systematic time plans involves knowing what needs to be done and when to do it, or focusing on "task" and "time"

• Robert Yinger identified five time spans of teacher planning: yearling planning, term planning, unit planning, weekly planning, and daily planning for them .

Behavioral Objectives:

1. are statements about changes that the teacher wishes to see in student' performance. Based in three separate parts

2. student's behavior. focus on what the student will learn or do.

3. conditions under which the behavior will occur. State how the behavior will be evaluated or tested.

4. performance criteria. Determine what level of performance will be acceptable

Task Analysis:

1. determine what skills or concepts the student needs to have to learn the task

2. list any materials that will be required in order to perform the task such as paper, pencil, and calculator

3. list all of the components of the task in the order in which they must be performed

Instructional Taxonomies:

The Cognitive Domain

• blooms cognitive taxonomy has six objectives

1. knowledge. students have the ability to remember information. For example, an objective might be to list or describe four main main advantages of using a computer for word processing

2. comprehension. Students understand the information and can explain it in their own words. For example, an objective might be to explain or discuss how a computer can effectively be used for word processing

3. Application. Students use knowledge to solve real-life problems. For example, an objective might be to apply what has been learned about using a computer for word processing to how this could be used in various careers.

4. analysis. students break down complex information into smaller parts and relate information to other information. Foe example, an objective might be to compare one type of word-processing program with another for doing term papers.

5. synthesis. students combine elements and create new information. For example, an objective might be to organize all that has been learned about the use of computers for writing.

6. evaluation. students make good judgments and decisions. For example, an objective might be to critique different word-processing programs or to judge the strengths and weaknesses of a particular word-processing program.

The affective domain:

1. Receiving. Students become aware of or attend to something in the environment. For example, a guest comes to class to talk with students about reading. AN objective might be for students to listen carefully to the speaker.

2. responding. students become motivated to learn and display a new behavior as a result of an experience. An objective might be for students to become motivated to become better readers as a result of the guest speaker's appearance.

3. valuing. Students become involved in, or committed to, some experience. An objective might be for students to value reading as an important skill.

4. Organizing. Students integrate a new value into an already existing set of values and give it proper priority. An objective might. be to have students participate in a book club.

5. Value characterizing. Students act in accordance with the value and are firmly committed to it. an objective might be that over the course of the school year, students increasingly value reading.

The Psychomotor Domain:

1. Reflex Movements. students response involuntarily without conscious thought to a stimulus-for example, blinking when an object unexpectedly hurtles their way.

2. basic fundamentals. students make basic voluntary movements that are directed toward a particular purpose, such as grasping a microscope knob and correctly turning it

3. perceptual abilities. students use their sense, such as seeing, hearing, or touching, to guide their skill efforts such as a watching how to hold an instrument in science, like a microscope, and listening to instructions on how to use it.

4. physical abilities. Students develop general skills of endurance, strength, flexibility, and agility, such as running long distances or hitting a softball

5. skilled movements. students perform complex physical skills with some degree of proficiency, such as effectively sketching a drawing

6. non-discursive behaviors. students communicate feelings and emotions through bodily actions, such as doing pantomimes or dancing to communicate a musical piece.

• teachers can use blooms taxonomies for the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains to plan instruction.

• bloom's taxonomy provides for a more expansive consideration of skills by also including affective and psychomotor domains

• in the updated version the knowledge dimension has 4 categories

1. factual: the basic elements students must know to be acquainted with a discipline or solve problems in it (Technical vocabulary, sources of information)

2. Conceptual: the interrelationships among the basic elements within a larger structure that allow them to function together (periods of geological time, forms of business ownership)

3. Procedural: how to do something, methods of inquiry and criteria for using skills (skills used in painting with watercolors, interviewing techniques)

4. metacognitive: knowledge of cognition and awareness of one's own cognition (knowledge of outlining and strategies for our remembering)

in the updated cognitive process dimension, six categories lie along a continuum from less complex (remember) to more complex (create)

1. Remember. retrieve relevant knowledge from long-term memory. (Recognize the dates of important events in U.S. history)

2. Understand. Construct meaning from instruction that includes interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, and explaining. (explain the causes of important eighteenth-century events in France.)

3. Apply. Carry out or use a procedure in a given situation. (use a law in physics in situations in which it is appropriate.

4. analyze. break material into its component parts and determine how the parts relate to each other and to overall structure or purpose. (distinguish between relevant and irrelevant numbers in a math word problem.

5. evaluate. make judgments based on criteria and standards. (detect inconsistencies or fallacies in a product.)

6. create. put elements together to form a coherent or functional whole; reorganize elements into a new pattern or structure. (generate hypotheses to account for an observe phenomenon)

Direct Instruction

• is a structured, teacher-centered approach that is characterized by teacher direction and control, high teacher expectations for students' progress, maximum time spent by students on academic tasks, and efforts by the teacher to keep negative affect to a minimum.

• takes place when the teacher chooses students' learning tasks, directs students' learning of the tasks, and minimizes the amount of nonacademic talk.

• an important goal in the direct-instruction approach is called academic learning time, learning takes time.

• the more academic learning time students get the more likely they are to learn the material and achieve high standards.

• keep negative affect to a minimum

Teacher Centered Instructional strategies:

Orienting

• advance organizers are teaching activities and techniques that establish a framework and orient students to material before it is presented.

• Advance organizers come in two forms; expository and comparative

Expository Advance Organizers

• provide students with new knowledge that will orient them to the upcoming lesson

another way to provide an expository advance organizer is to describe the lesson's theme and why it is important to study this topic

Comparative Advance Organizers

• introduce new material by connecting it with what students already know

Lecturing, Explaining, and Demonstrating

some goals that lecturing can accomplish

1. presenting information and motivating students' interest in a subject

2. introducing a topic before students read about it on their own, or giving instructions on how to perform. task

3. summarizing or synthesizing information after a discussion or inquiry

4. providing alternative points of view or clarifying issues in preparation for discussion

5. explaining materials that students are having difficult learning on their own.

Questioning and Discussing

• teachers should respond to each student's learning needs while maintaining the group's interest and attention

• it is also important to distribute participation widely while also retaining the enthusiasm of eager volunteers

• involved learning one concept or topic thoroughly before moving on to a more difficult one

1. specific the learning task or lesson. Develop precise instructional objectives. Establish mastery standards (this typically is where A students perform)

2. Break the course into learning units that are aligned with instructional objectives

3. plan instructional procedures to include corrective feedback to students if they fail to master the material at an acceptable level, such as 90 percent correct. The corrective feedback might take place through supplemental materials, tutoring, or small-group instruction

• Outcomes of mastery learning depend on the teacher's skill in planning and executing the strategy

• a well-organized mastery learning program fro remedial reading allows students to progress at their own rates based on their skills, their motivation, and the time they have to learn.

• moves the focus away from the teacher an toward the student

• students' perceptions of a positive learning environment and interpersonal relationships with the teacher-facets associate with learner-centered instruction-were important in enhancing students' motivation and achievement

14 learner-centered principle in terms of four sets of factors: cognitive and metacognitive, motivational and instructional, developmental and social, and individual differences Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors

• this principles highlight learners' intellectual capacities and how the learning process is facilitated by contexts that support thinking strategies

1. Nature of the Learning Process

   the learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional process of constructing meaning from information and experience

2. Goals of the Learning Process

   The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge

3. Construction of Knowledge

   The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways.

4. Strategic Thinking

   the successful learner can create a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve complex goals

5. Thinking about Thinking

   Higher-order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate creative and critical thinking

6. Context of Learning

   Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology, and instructional practices

Motivational and Instructional Factors:

• These principles highlight the roles of motivation and emotion in learning, focusing on how contacts can meet individual learners' needs for control and choice

1. Motivational and Emotional Influences on Learning

   What and how much is learned is influence by the learner's motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the learner's emotional states, believes, interests, goals, and habits of thinking

2. Intrinsic Motivation to Learn

   The learner's creativity, higher-order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests and providing for personal choice and control

3. Effects of Motivation on Effort

   Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort and guided practice. Without learners' motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without coercion.

Developmental and Social Factors

• These principles focus on how learner development and interpersonal interactions can influence learning

1. Developmental Influences on Learning

   As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for learning. Learning is most effective when development within and across physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional domains is taken into account.

2. Social Influences on Learning

   Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations and communication with others

Individual Difference Factors

• these principles emphasize the importance of setting high standards and using assessment to adapt instruction to meet the needs of diverse learners

1. individual Differences in Learning

   Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that are a function of prior experience and heredity

2. Learning and Diversity

   Learning is most effective when differences in learners' linguistic, cultural, and social backgrounds are taken into account,

3. Standards and assessment

   Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner as well as learning progress-including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment - are integral parts of the learning process.

Some Learner-Centered Instructional Strategies:

Problem-Based Learning

• emphasizes real-life problem solving

• exposes students to authentic problems like those that crop up in everyday life.

• is learner-centered approach that focuses on a problem to be solved though small-group efforts

• students identify problems or issues they wish to explore, locate materials and resources they need to address the issue or solve the problems.

• are questions that reflect the heart of the curriculum

• cause students to think and motivates their curiosity

Discovery Learning

• learning in which students construct an understanding on their own

• students have to figure out things for themselves

• guided discovery learning; students are still encouraged to construct their understanding, but with the assistance of teacher-guided questions and directions

Evaluating Learner-Centered Strategies

• to approach lesson planning and instruction is positive in many ways

• encourages teachers to help students actively construct their understanding, set goals and plan, think deeply and creatively, monitor their learning, solve real-world problems, develop more positive self-esteem and control they emotions, be internally motivated, learn in a developmentally appropriate way, collaborate effectively with others, evaluate their learner preferences, and meet challenging standards.

• critics argue that it gives too much attention to the process of learning and not enough academic content

• A system of computer networks that operates worldwide.

• Cloud Computing; delivery of services such as server, storage, and applications to an organization's computers and device through the internet.

• though the internet is a helpful and valuable tool for student learning it also carries setbacks likes; effectively using it with students, knowing how to use it comfortable, being up-to-date on equipment, and students having access to mature websites

How to Effectively use the Internet in the Classroom

• Navigating and integrating knowledge. Teachers can focus on authentic data for problem solving and inquiry, such as temperature records or census data. Also, it can be helpful to reconcile information from multiple sources as well as teaching and modeling evaluation of information, analysis of source credibility, and documentation of Internet resources.

• Collaborative learning. One of the most effective ways to use the Internet in your classroom is through project-centered activities. Blog publishing (allowing moderated comments) can be a good collaborative online activity. Another collaborative use of the Internet is to have a group of students conduct a survey on a topic, put it on the Internet, and hope to obtain responses from many parts of the world. They can organize, analyze, and summarize the data they receive, and then share them with other classes around the world. Yet another type of collaborative learning project involves sending groups of students on Internet "scavenger hunts" to find information and/or solve a problem. Online citizen science projects also are inherently collaborative with data being pooled online for analysis. In the classroom, Web publishing and online videos can be highly collaborative activities with activities with different groups assigned to different roles and responsibilities (e.g., art department, script writers, technical team).

• Kent Innovation High School in Michigan extensively uses project-based learning and the Internet (Langel, 2015). Every student has a laptop and the entire school is invested in the use of Google Drive, where students can store designs, drawings, recordings, stories, videos, and so on. Teachers use Google Drive to introduce, trace, and plan projects with students, who use it for generating ideas, planning, and orchestrating their own projects.

• Computer-mediated communications (CMC). An increasing number of innovative educational projects include the use of computer-mediated communications.

• Improving teachers' knowledge and understanding.

Graphics and Presentation

• Graphics software and PowerPoint can improve many presentations by enhancing the content and attractiveness of the visual aids you use to teach students

Technology Standards for Students Involve being a (an)

• Empowered Learner. Students actively use technology to reach learning goals.

• Digital Citizen. Students demonstrate responsibility and are ethical in their use of technology.

• Knowledge Constructor. Students use a variety of resources and digital tools to construct knowledge, become more creative, and engage in meaningful learning.

• Innovative Designer. Students use various technologies to solve problems and craft useful and imaginative solutions to these problems.

• Computational Thinker. Students develop strategies in using technology to create solutions and test them.

• Creative Communicator. Students communicate effectively and think creatively in their use of digital tools to attain goals.

• Global Collaborator. Students use technology to widen their perspectives and enhance their learning by connecting with others locally and globally.

Teaching, Learning, and Technology:

Using Technology to Improve

• Evaluate which topics are worth understanding. Technology is especially appropriate for generating worthwhile and interesting learning topics. The Internet provides a wealth of information about virtually every topic imaginable that can be mined to generate new topics or expand what students are studying as part of the curriculum. The wide range of information provided by the Internet allows students to learn more about their own interests and ideas and carve a unique pathway in learning about a topic, instead of following cookie-cutter steps in a traditional textbook or workbook (Roblyer,2016). Wiske et al., (2005) also point out that technology can often be used effectively to teach where problem spots emerge every year: "examples include heat and temperature or weight and density in science, ratios in mathematics, and stereotypes in history and social studies classes" (p. 28). These topics, which many students struggle to understand, are central to the subiect matter and are frequently more easily understood through the use of technology.

• Think about what students should understand about a topic. When teachers consider using technology in the classroom, it is important for them to think about the learning goals they have for their students. Goals might include learning a new concept or applying a key concept to relevant situations. A goal related to technology might be to understand how to find and critically examine information on the Internet that is relevant to a classroom topic. Generating goals in this manner reminds the teacher that "surfing the Web" is "not an end in itself" but rather a way to use "technology to accomplish meaningful work" (Wiske et al., 2005, p. 44).

• Pay attention to how students develop and demonstrate understanding.
  Use technology to help students "stretch their minds" and understand something in ways that they never did before. In improving students' understanding, Wiske et al., (2005) recommend that teachers use technology when it can "enhance and enrich their performances of understanding. ... Word processors, digital audio and video technologies for creating Web sites allow students to express their understanding in a rich variety of media. These technologies also capture student work in forms that can be easily revised, combined, and distributed* (Wiske et al., 2005, pp. 65-66).

• Consider how students and teachers assess learning. Use ongoing assessment instead of only using a final assessment. During ongoing assessment, you might guide students in understanding what quality work involves or use peer collaboration to help students analyze and improve their work.

  A helpful strategy is to also encourage students to assess their own learning progress and to monitor how effectively they are learning. Technology can be used in several ways to effectively assess learning.

• Reflect on how students and teachers can learn together. "Networked technologies provide multiple advantages for connecting learners with reflective, collaborative communities...: " For example, "E-mail permits users to send and receive many-to-many messages and to do so quickly. Students can share information and work with many other students all over the world, exchanging multiple rounds of reflective dialogue. The Web, with digital images, video and audio recordings, and videoconferencing, also allows students and their teachers to publish and collaborate on work, opening up the possibility of communicating with a wide range of audiences outside the classroom" (Wiske et al., 2005, pp. 100, 102). Social media also can be an important tool to accomplish these goals as well.

Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge

• A model created by Matthew Koehler and Punta Mishra

• Emphasizes the importance of not looking at technology as a stand-alone entity but rather addressing links between technology, content knowledge, and pedagogy

Stages of Integrating Technology into Classroom Teaching

Stage 1: Teacher is aware that a particular technology exists but hasn't used it; may be avoiding the technology

Stage 2: Teacher is currently trying to learn the basic aspects of the technology but often becomes frustrated and still lacks confidence with this technology

Stage 3: Teacher is beginning to see how to use a particular technology and thinks about specific situations in which to use it

Stage 4: Teacher is gaining confidence in using the technology as something that helps him or her and no longer lacks confidence in using to; teacher perceives that the technology can be used in a number of instructional contexts.

Stage 5: Teacher now thinks about his technology as something that helps him or her and no longer lacks confidence in using it; teacher perceives that the technology can be used in a number of instructional contexts

Stage 6: Teacher can use this technology as an effective instructional tool across the curriculum to meet instructional objectives.

• to build underserved students' intellective capacity rests in its focus on information processing.

• Our ability to process, store, and use information dictates whether we are able to do more complex and complicated thinking in the future because they are the very things that stimulate brain growth.

• The cognitive rich will only get academically richer while the cognitively poor will get academically poorer, as small differences in learning abilities such as information processes are allowed to grow into large gaps.

The Neuroscience of Information Processing

• Stage 1 (input): During the first stage the brain decides what information it should pay attention to.

• Stage 2 (Elaboration): If the brain decides it wants to let in this information and seek to understand what it means, it sends the info on to the next phase, elaboration. Elaboration makes material memorable and meaningful. The elaboration stage is where learning for understanding takes place

• Stage 3 (Application): After elaboration, the brain moves to application. The application stage focuses on giving the Brin opportunities to apply this new knowledge through deliberate practice and real life application. As memory capacity expands so does intellective capacity and the student's ability to do higher tasks.

The Cultural Connection

• CRT information processing techniques grow out of the learning traditions of oral cultures where knowledge is taught and processes through story, song, movement, repetitious chants, rituals, and dialogic talk. They are all forms of elaboration and rely heavily on the brain's memory system.

• In response, children's brains create neural pathways in the working memory that are primed for processing information orally and actively.

Building Intellective Capacity

1. Ignite - getting the brain's attention

2. Chunk- Making information digestible

3. Chew - Actively processing new information

4. Review - Having a chance to apply new learning

attention is the first step in learning. During the input stage of learning, the brain has to let in the new content. First we have to pay attention. We canot learn, remember or understand what we don't first give our attention to.

• Other culturally oriented techniques;

1. Call and Response

2. Music

3. Provocations

4. Talk

Chunk: Feed the Brain Right-Sized Pieces of Information

Chew: Help the Brain Process the Content

Cognitive Routines Aid Elaboration

• introduce them to cognitive routines for deeper processing

• Giving students the change to actively process information is at the heart of CRT because all new content that makes it to out working memory must be mixed with our existing background knowledge.

• The ultimate goal of culturally responsive instruction is to help students build inside their heads a "cognitive power plant" that allows them ways of learning through the explicit focus on cognitive routines.

As a part of Cognitive Routine, have students ask these four questions

1. How is the new material connected to what I already know?

2. What are the natural relationships and patterns in the material?

3. How does it fit together? what larger system s it part of?

4. Whose point of view does it represent

there are four key cognitive routines the brain gravitates to when we place new information on working memory's tabletop, some call them "thinking dispositions" or "thinking routines"

1. similarities and differences. the brain looks for distinctions between this new concepts, or events. the brain tries to understand what features make them the same or different

2. Whole-to-part. The brain tries to understand how things are organized into a system. Is the object, concept, or even part of a larger system or pattern? Is it a smaller part of the white or is the whole made up of smaller parts?

3. Relationships. The brain tries to see the relationship of the object concept, or event to other things. It wants to understand how it is connected and the role it plays as it interacts with other events, objects, or concepts

4. Perspectives. The brain tries to figure out the point of view or perspective being presented. It tries to determine who is telling the story or controlling the narrative.

Two things are necessary for thinking routines to take hold as cognitive habits

1. There has to be a strong cue that prompts the thinker into starting the routine

2. The routine has to be internalized, meaning the learner has to remember the steps in the routine on his own eventually

Talk to Learn

• Leo Vygotsky said language is the medium by which children acquire their information.

instructional Conversation

• the kind of talk that acts like a mental blender, mixing together new material with existing knowledge in a students' schema

  
  

• Rhythmic Mnemonics in Songs or Spoken Word Poetry

• Storify-ing the content

• recursive graphic organizers, infographics and other nonlinguistic representations

• Metaphors and analogies

• word play and humor

Review

• Play a game to review

• solve the mystery or real-life problem

• Work on long-term projects

Culturally Responsive Information Processing in Math and Science

• the power of crt is in its ability to help students depend their understanding of core concepts as well as build automaticity and fluency with core facts.

• helping students build an academic vocabulary in math and science will lay a strong foundation for doing more rigorous conceptual thinking in those subject areas

• Involves the processes that energize, direct, and sustain behavior

Perspectives on Motivation:

The Behavioral Perspective

• The behavioral perspectives emphasize external rewards and punishments as key in determining a student's motivation

• Using incentives can motivate students; candy, games, etc.

The Humanistic Perspective:

The humanistic perspective stresses students' capacity for personal growth, freedom to choose their destiny, and positive qualities

According the Maslow's hierarchy of needs, individuals needs must be satisfied in this sequence

1. physiological: hunger, thirst, sleep

2. safety: ensuring survival, such as protection from war and crime

3. love and belongingness: security, affection and attention from others

4. esteem: feeling good about oneself

5. self-actualization: realization of one's potential

• In Maslow's view, self-actualization is possible only after the lower needs have been met.

The Cognitive Perspective:

• accord to the cognitive perspective on motivation, students' thoughts guide their motivation.

• Competence motivation is the idea that people are motivated to deal effectively with their environment, to master their world, and to process information efficiently.

The Social Perspective:

• Social perspective involves the need for affliction or relatedness is the motive to be securely connected with people this involves establishing,maintaining, and restoring warm, close personal relationships

• students' need for affiliation or relatedness is reflected in their motivation to spend time with their peers, their close friends, their attachment to their parents, and their desire to have a positive relationship with their teachers

• the concept of a belonging mindset describes the belief that people like you belong in your school

• when underrepresented students feel they belong and are well connected to their school, they have better physical and mental health, and have greater academic success

• realize that you don't have to adopt just one perspective, all of the perspectives provide information that is relevant to children's education

• students are more highly motivated to learn when they are given choices, become absorbed in challenges that match their skills, and receive rewards that have informational value but are not used for control.

• praise can also enhance students' intrinsic motivation

Extrinsic Motivation

• involves doing something to obtain something else (a means to an end)

• is often influenced by external incentives such as rewards and punishments

• driven by desire to obtain rewards or avoid punishment, is associated with decreased well-being

Intrinsic Motivation

• involved the internal motivation to do something for its own sake (an end in itself)

• intrinsic is related to student success and well-being, and personal value is related to persistence

• four types of intrinsic motivation

1. self-determination and personal choice

2. optimal experiences and flow

3. intererst

4. cognitive engagement and self-responsibility

Self-Determination and Personal Choice:

• researchers have found that students' internal motivation and intrinsic interest in school tasks increase when students have some choice and some opportunities to take person responsibility for their learning

• Compared with a control group, students in this intrinsic motivation/ self-determination group had higher achievement gains and were more likely to graduate from high school

Strategies for Student Self Determination and Choice

1. Take the time to talk with students and discuss with them why the learning activity is important.

2. Provide students opportunities to make choices that are meaningful to them.

3. Be attentive to students' feelings when they are being asked to do something they don't want to do

4. Manage the classroom effectively, in a way that lets students make personal choices. Let students select topics for book reports, writing assignments, and research projects. Let them decide how they want to report their work; For instance, let them report to you or to the class as a whole, individually or with a partner

5. Establish learning centers where students can work individually or collaboratively with other students on different projects and can select their activities from a menu that you have developed

6. create self-selected interest groups and let students work on relevant research together.

Optimal Experiences and Flow

• Flow occurs most often when people develop a sense of mastery and are absorbed in a state of concentration while they engage in an activity

• He argues that flow occurs when individuals are engaged in challenges they find neither too difficult nor too easy

• Flow is most likely to occur in areas in which students are challenged and perceive themselves as having a high degree of skill.

• When students' skills are high but the activity provides little challenge, the result is boredom

• You can help students achieve flow by being competent and motivated , become an expert about the subject matter, show enthusiasm when you reach and present yourself as a model who is intrinsically motivated

Interest

• a distinction has been made between individual interest, which is thought to be relatively stable, and situational interest , which is believe to be generated by specific aspects of a task activity

• Research on interest has focused mainly on its relationship to learning and cognitive processes, as well as its importance in various academic domains

• Interest is linked more closely to measures of deep learning, such as recall of main ideas and responses to more difficult comprehension questions, than to surface learning, such as responses to simple questions and verbatim recall of text

• Researchers have found that a number off contextual factors, such as autonomy support, instructor approachability, involvement opportunities, and course material relevance, are linked to situational interest and in turn may support individual interest

• Integrating technology into the classroom can increase students' motivation to learn and engagement in learning, especially when it is used to foster authentic learning

• research reveals that special needs students can achieve at the same levels as regular students in some situations when using technology

Cognitive Engagement and Self-Responsibility

• the emphasize the importance of creating learning environments that encourages students to become cognitively engaged and take responsibility for their learning

• The goal is to get students to become motivated to expend the effort to persist and master ideas rather than simply doing enough wot to just get by

Extrinsic Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation

• Rewards in the classroom can be useful because it;

1. can be used as an incentive to engage in tasks, in which case the goal is to control the students behavior

2. to convey information about mastery

• it is important to examine what rewards convey about comptenence

• when rewards are tied to competence, they tend to promote motivation and interest

• When they are not, they are unlikely to raise motivation or may diminish it once the rewards are withdrawn

Developmental Shifts in Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

• Researchers have found that as students move from early elementary school years to high school years, their intrinsic motivation decreases

• the biggest drop in intrinsic motivation and increase in extrinsic motivation occurred between sixth grade and seventh grade

• students who were intrinsically motivated did much better academically than those who were extrinsically motivated

• School grading reinforces an external motivation orientation

• Proposing the concept of person-environment fit, argues that a lack of fit between the middle school/junior high environment and the needs of young adolescents process increasingly negative self-evaluations and attitudes toward school

• teachers became more controlling just at the time when adolescents are seeking more autonomy, and the teacher-relationship becomes more impersonal at a time when students are seeking more independence from their parents and need more support from other adults

Some Final Thoughts About Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

• teachers should create learning environments that promote students' cognitive engagement and self-responsibility for learning

• in many aspects of students' lives both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation can operate simultaneously

• The seven processes are;

1. attribution

2. mastery, motivation and mindset

3. self-efficacy

4. goal setting, planning and self-monitoring

5. expectations

6. delay of gratification

7. values and purpose

• are needs and desires that are learned through experiences with the social world

• students' social needs are reflected in their desires to be popular with peers and have close friends and the powerful attraction they feel to someone they love

• every school day, students work at establishing and maintain social relationships

• both teacher approval and peer approval are important social motives for most students

• adolescence can be an especially important juncture in achievement motivation and social motivation

• as adolescents experience more intense achievement demands, their social interest might cut into the time they need for academic matters

Social Relationships

• students' relationships with parents, peers and friends have a tremendous impact on their lives. Their interactions with teachers, mentors, and others can profoundly affect their achievement and social motivation

Demographic Characteristics

• parents with more education are more likely than less-educated parents to believe that their involvement in their child's education is important, to be active participants in their child's education, and to have intellectually stimulating materials at home

• living in single-parent family, having parents who are consumed by their work and living in a larger gamily can undercut children's achievement

• Parental over involvement also can undermine students' achievement

Child-Rearing Practices

• knowing enough about the child to provide the right amount of challenge and the right amount os support

• providing a positive emotional climate that motivates children to internalize their parents' values and goals

• Modeling motivated achievement behavior -- working hard and persisting with effort at challenging tasks

Provision of Specific Experience at Home

• reading to one's preschool children and providing reading materials in the home are positively related to students' later reading achievement and motivation

• researchers have found that children's skills and work habits when they enter kindergarten are among the best predictors of academic motivation and performance in both elementary and secondary school

Peers

• students who are more accepted by their peers and who have good social skills often do better in school and have positive academic achievement motivation

• a study revealed that having aggressive-disruptive friends in adolescence was linked to a lower likelihood of graduating from high school

• having friends who are academically oriented is linked to higher achievement in adolescence

Teachers

• When researchers have observed classrooms, they have found that effective, engaging teachers provide support for students to make good progress, but encourage them to become self-regulated achievers

• the encouragement takes place In a very positive environment, one in which students are constantly being guided to become motivated to try hard and develop self-efficacy

• Many children who do not do well in school consistently have negative interactions with their teachers

• Researchers have found that students who feel they have supportive, caring, teachers are more strongly motivated to engage in academic work than students who do not

• Students' motivation is optimized when teachers provide them with challenging tasks in a mastery-oriented environment that includes good emotional and cognitive support, meaningful and interesting material to learn and master, and sufficient support for autonomy and initiative

• many researchers conclude that when academic work is meaningful, it sustains students' attention and interest, engages them in learning and reduces the likelihood that students will feel alienated from school

Teachers and Parents

• When teachers systematically and frequently inform parents of their child's progress and parents get involved in their children's learning, children often reach higher levels of academic achievement

Sociocultural Contexts

• achievement differences are more closely related to socioeconomic status than to ethnicity

• Regardless of their ethnic background, students from middle- and upper-income families fare better than their counterparts from low-income backgrounds in a host of achievement situations-expectations for success, achievement aspirations, and recognition of the importance of effort, for example

• A special challenge for many ethnic minority students, especially those living in poverty, is dealing with racial prejudice, conflict between the values of their group and the majority group, and a lack of high-achieving adults in their cultural group who can serve as positive role models

• It is important to consider the nature of the schools that primarily serve ethnic minority students

Students Who are Low Achieving and Have Low Expectations for Success

• students need to be consistently reassured that they CAN meet their goals and challenges that are set, you will need to support them for them to succeed

• they need to be reminded that you will accept their progress only as long as they make real effort

• they might need individualized instructional materials or activities to provide an optimal challenge for their skill level

• help them set learning goals and give them support but require these students to put forth considerable effort and make progress

• failure syndrome students are different from low-achieving students who fail despite putting forth their best effort

• failure syndrome students don't put forth enough effort, often beginning tasks in a halfhearted manner and giving up quickly at the first hint of a challenge

• failure syndrome students often have low self-efficacy and a fixed mindset

Students Who Protect Their Self-Worth By Avoiding Failure

• Nonperformance. The most obvious strategy for avoiding failure is to not try.
  In the classroom, nonperformance tactics include appearing eager to answer a teacher's question but hoping the teacher will call on another student, sliding down in the seat to avoid being seen by the teacher, and avoiding eye contact. These can seem like minor deceptions, but they might portend other, more chronic forms of noninvolvement such as dropping out and excessive absences.

• Procrastination. Individuals who postpone studying for a test until the last minute can blame failure on poor time management, thus deflecting attention away from the possibility that they are incompetent. A variation on this theme is to take on so many responsibilities that you have an excuse for not doing any one of them in a highly competent manner.

• Setting unreachable goals. By setting goals so high that success is virtually impossible, individuals can avoid the implication that they are incompetent, because virtually anyone would fail to reach such a challenging goal.

Here are a few strategies to help students reduce preoccupation with protecting self-worth and avoiding failure (Covington & Teel, 1996):

• Guide students in setting challenging but realistic goals.

• Help students strengthen the link between their effort and self-pride. Tell them to take pride in their effort and minimize social comparison.

• Encourage students to have positive beliefs about their abilities but don't tell them they have high ability or praise them for high ability.

Students Who Procrastinate

• A meta-analysis of research studies revealed that procrastination is linked to low self-efficacy, low conscientiousness, distractibility, and low achievement

• other reasons students procrastinate include poor time management, difficult concentrating, fear and anxiety, negative beliefs, personal problems, boredom, unrealistic expectation, fear of failure and perfectionism

procrastination can take form like;

• Ignoring the task and hoping that it will go away

• Underestimating the work involved in the task or overestimating one's abilities and resources

• Spending endless hours on computer games and surfing the Internet

• Substituting a worthy but lower-priority activity, such as cleaning one's room instead of studying

• Believing that repeated minor delays won't hurt

• Persevering on only part of the task, such as writing and rewriting the first paragraph of a paper but never getting to the body of it

• Becoming paralyzed when having to choose between two alternatives--for example, agonizing over doing biology homework or English homework first with the outcome that neither is done

Students with High Anxiety

• some students have high anxiety levels and worry constantly which can impair their ability to achieve

• some students experience high anxiety levels because of unrealistic achievement expectations and pressure

Students Who are Uninterested or Alienated

• the most difficult motivation problem involves students who are apathetic, uninterested in learning, or alienated from school learning

Strategies to Reach Uninterested or Alienated Students;

1. Work on developing a positive relationship with the student. If the uninterested or alienated student doesn't like you, it is hard to get the student to work toward any achievement goals. Show patience, but be determined to help the student and push for steady progress in spite of setbacks or resistance.

2. Make school more intrinsically interesting. To make school more intrinsically interesting for this type of student, find out the student's interests and if possible include those interests in assignments that you make.

3. Teach strategies for making academic work more enjoyable. Help students understand that they are causing their own problems, and find ways to guide them in taking pride in their work.

4. Consider a mentor. Think about enlisting the aid of a mentor in the community or an older student you believe the uninterested or alienated student will respect.

Competence Motivation: The idea that people are motivated to deal effectively with their environment, to master their world, and to process information efficiently

Delay of Gratification: Postponing immediate rewards in order to attain larger, more valuable rewards in the future

Extrinsic Motivation: The external motivation to do something to obtain something else

Failure Syndrome: Having low expectations for success and giving up at the first sign of difficulty

Helpless Orientation: A response to challenges and difficulties in which the individual feels trapped by the difficulty and attributes the difficulty to a lack of ability

Hierarchy of Needs: Maslow's concept that individual needs must be satisfied in this sequence: physiological, safety, love and belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization

Humanistic Perspective: A view that stresses students' capacity for personal growth, freedom to choose their destiny, and positive qualities

Incentives: Positive or negative stimuli or events that can motivate a student's behavior

Intrinsic Motivation: The internal motivation to do something for its own sake (an end in itself)

Mastery Orientation: A task-oriented response to difficult or challenging circumstances that focuses on learning strategies and the process of achievement rather than the outcome

Mindset: Dweck's concept that refers to the cognitive view individuals develop for themselves; individuals have one of two mindsets: fixed or growth

Motivation: The processes that energize, direct, and sustain behavior

Need for Affiliations or Relatedness: The motive to be securely connected with other people

Performance Orientation: A focus on winning rather than achievement outcome; success is believe to result from winning

Self-actualization: The highest and most elusive of Maslow's needs; the motivation to develop one's full potential as a human being

Self-efficacy: The belief that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes

Social Motives: Needs and desires that are learned through experiences with the social world

• attribution theory; states that individuals are motivated to discover the underlying causes of their own performance and behavior

• educational psychologist often recommend providing students with a planned series of achievement experiences in which modeling information about, strategies, practice and feedback re used to help them;

1. concentrate on the task at hand rather than worrying about failing

2. cope with failures by retracing their steps to discover their mistake or by analyzing the problem to discover another approach

3. attribute their failures to a lack of effort rather than lack of ability

• The current strategy is not expose students to models who handle tasks with ease and demonstrate success but rather to expose them to models who struggle to overcome mistakes before finally succeeding

• this way students learn how to deal with frustration, persistence in the face of difficulties, and constructively cope with failure

Mastery, Motivation and Mindset

Mastery Motivation

• children who display mastery orientation are task-oriented; instead of focusing on their ability, they concentrate on learning strategies and the process of achievement rather than the outcome

• those with helpless orientation seem trapped by the experience of difficulty and they attribute their difficulty to lack of ability

• mastery-oriented children often instruct themselves to pay attention, to think carefully, and to remember strategies that have worked from them in previous situations

• Children with performance orientation focus on winning rather than achievement, and they believe that success results from winning

• for mastery-oriented individuals winning isn't everything; for performance-oriented individuals, skill development and self-efficacy take a backseat to winning

• mastery and performance goals; they are not always mutually exclusive, students can both mastery and performance oriented, and researcher have found that mastery goals combined with performance goals often benefit students' success

Self-efficacy

• The belief that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes

• a critical factor in whether or not students achieve

• influences a student's choice of activities

• students with low self efficacy may avoid learning tasks, especially those that are challenging

• students learn much more from teachers with a sense of high self-efficacy than those beset by self doubts

• low-self-efficacy teachers don't have confidence in their ability to manage their classrooms, become stresses and angered at student' misbehavior, are pessimistic about students' ability to improve, take a custodial view of their job, often resort to restrictive and punitive modes of discipline.

• teachers regard their students as capable of high academic achievement, set challenging academic standards for them, and provide support to help them reach these high standards

Expectations

Students' Expectation

• how hard students will work can depend on how much they expect to accomplish, if they expect to succeed, they are more likely to work hard to reach a goal than if they expect to fail

• three aspects of ability beliefs, are students' beliefs about how good they are at a particular activity, how good they are in comparison with other individuals and how good they are in relation to their performance in other activities

Teachers Expectations

• teachers expectations influence students' motivation and performance

• teachers often have more positive expectations for high-ability than for low-ability students and these expectations are likely to influence their behavior toward them

• an important teaching stately is to monitor your expectations and be sure to have positive expectations for students with low abilities

Delay of Gratification

• is an important aspect of reaching goals - especially long-term goals

• involves postponing immediate rewards in order to attain larger, more valuable rewards in the future

Values and Purpose

• students who have positive values and a sense of purpose are more likely to be able to delay gratification than those who don't

• students work is influenced by the value they place on the goal they have

• values can be attached to all sorts of things, such as religion, money, sex, helping others, family, friends, self-discipline, cheating, education, career and so on.

• Provide information about students' progress. Standardized tests are a source of information about how well students are performing.
  Students in one class might get A's but perform at a mediocre level on a nationally standardized test, and students in another class might get B's and do extremely well on the same nationally standardized test.

• Without an external, objective marker such as a standardized test, individual classroom teachers have difficulty knowing how well their students are performing compared with students elsewhere in the state or nation. Standardized tests also are used to show growth in achievement across months or years.

•  Standardized tests also can provide information about a student's learning strengths or weaknesses. Different subscale scores can be compared to show strengths and weaknesses, and individually administered tests can be used to pinpoint the student's learning weaknesses.

• Provide evidence for placement of students in specific programs. Standardized tests can be used to make decisions about whether a student should be allowed to enter a specific program. In elementary school, a standardized test might be used to provide information for placing students in different reading groups. In high school, a standardized test might be used to determine which math classes a student should take. In some cases, standardized tests are used along with other information to evaluate whether a student might be allowed to skip a grade or to graduate. Students also might take standardized tests to determine their suitability for particular careers. One type of standardized test--the benchmark or interim assessment- is given quarterly to help teachers determine the areas of achievement that need further instruction.

• Provide information for planning and improving instruction. In conjunction with other information about students, scores from standardized tests can be used by teachers in making decisions about instruction.

• For example, students' scores on a standardized test of reading skills administered at the start of the school year can help teachers determine the level at which they need to gear their reading instruction. Students' scores on a standardized test at the end of the year might inform teachers about how effective their reading instruction has been, information that could be used to continue similar instruction or modify it accordingly.

• Contribute to accountability. Schools and teachers are increasingly being held accountable for students' learning. Although this application is controversial, standardized tests are being used to determine how effectively schools are using tax dollars.

Criteria For Evaluating Standardized Tests

Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Tests

• is said to be based on national norms when the norm group consists of a nationally representative group of students

• Under No Child Left Behind, state standardized tests were typically criterion-referenced tests, which do not use norms.

• For example, state criterion-referenced tests might assess whether a student has attained a level of achievement termed "proficient," or reached a certain percentage level, such answering 80 percent of the items correctly. These levels of achievement were set by the state and used to determine annual yearly progress (AY) for accountability purposes for No Child Left Behind requirements.

• Criterion-referenced tests are designed to assess students' skills and knowledge in specific areas, such as English, math, and science.

Validity, Reliability, and Fairness

Validity

• has been defined as the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure

• involves the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure and whether inferences about test scores are accurate and appropriate.

• In terms of the test characteristics themselves-the substance of the test-three types of validity can be described: content validity, criterion validity, and construct validity.

• Another form of validity is criterion validity, which is the test's ability to predict a student's performance as measured by other assessments or criteria.

• Concurrent validity is the relation between the test's scores and other criteria that are currently (concurrently) available.

• Construct validity is the extent to which there is evidence that a test measures a particular construct. Construct validity is the broadest of the types of validity we have discussed and can include evidence from concurrent and predictive validity

• Judgments about construct validity might also rely on a description of the development of the test, the pattern of the relations between the test and other significant factors (such as high correlations with similar tests and low correlations with tests measuring different constructs), and any other type of evidence that contributes to understanding the meaning of test scores.

• construct typically is abstract, a variety of evidence may be needed to determine whether a test validly measures a particular construct.

Reliability

• Reliability is the extent to which a test produces a consistent, reproducible score. To be called reliable, scores must be stable, dependable, and relatively free from errors of measurement (Popham, 2020). Reliability can be measured in several ways, including test-retest reliability, alternate-forms reliability, and split-half reliability.

• Test-retest reliability is the extent to which a test yields the same performance when a student is given the same test on two occasions.

  Thus, if the standardized fourth-grade science test is given to a group of students today and then given to them again a month later, the test would be considered reliable if the students' scores were consistent across the two testings. There are two negative features of test-retest reliability:

  Students sometimes do better the second time they take the test because of their familiarity with it, and some students may have learned information in the time between the first test and the second test that changes their performance.

• Alternate-forms reliability is determined by giving different forms of the same test on two different occasions to the same group of students and observing how consistent the scores are. The test items on the two forms are similar but not identical. This strategy eliminates the likelihood that students will perform better on the second test administration due to their familiarity with the items, but it does not eliminate a student's increase in knowledge and increased familiarity with the testing procedures and strategies.

• Split-half reliability involves dividing the test items into two halves, Page SI such as the odd-numbered and even-numbered items. The scores on the two sets of items are compared to determine how consistently the students performed across each set. When split-half reliability is high, we say that the test is internally consistent. For example, on the standardized fourth-grade science test, the students' scores on the odd-numbered and even-numbered items could be compared. If they scored similarly on the two sets of items, we could conclude that the science test had high split-half reliability.

• Internal factors include health, motivation, and anxiety.

• External factors include inadequate directions given by the examiner, ambiguously created items, poor sampling of information, and inefficient scoring.

Fairness and Bias

• Are unbiased and nondiscriminatory

• When tests are fair, students have the opportunity to demonstrate their learning so that their performance is not affected by their gender, ethnicity, disability, or other factors unrelated to the purpose of the test.

• For students with disabilities, fairness often requires adaptations in administering the test. Many of the adaptations depend on the particular disability

• The goal is to lessen the negative influence of the disability on the trait being tested. For example, for students with a hearing disability, be sure that the directions are written; for students with a visual problem, be sure that directions are given orally.

• An aptitude test is designed to predict a student's ability to learn a skill or accomplish something with further education and training.

• For example, one aptitude test might be given to students to predict their future success in math, whereas another might be given to predict whether an individual is likely to do well in sales or medicine.

• An achievement test is intended to measure what the student has learned or what skills the student has mastered.

• blurred. Both types of tests assess a student's current status, the questions they use are often quite similar, and usually the results of the two kinds of tests are highly correlated.

Types of Standardized Achievement Tests

Survey Batteries

• A survey battery is a group of individual subject-matter tests that is designed for a particular level of students.

• Survey batteries are the most widely used national norm-referenced standardized tests

• In their early years, survey batteries consisted of multiple-choice items to assess the student's content knowledge.

Test for Specific Subjects

• Some standardized achievement tests assess skills in a particular area such as reading or mathematics.

• Some standardized subject-area tests cover such topics as chemistry, psychology, or computer science that are not included in survey batteries.

Diagnostic Tests

• Diagnostic testing consists of a relatively in-depth evaluation of a specific area of learning.

• Its purpose is to determine the specific learning needs of a student so that those needs can be met through regular or remedial instruction

• However, for a test to be effective in diagnosis it should have several test items for each skill or objective that is measured, and many of these national tests fall short in this regard.

High-Stakes State Standards-Based Tests

• Most teachers today are much more concerned with these accountability tests than aptitude or more traditional standardized achievement tests.

• State tests today tend to be standards based end-of-year tests that are required for states to receive federal education funds.

The Format of State Standards-Based Tests

• State standards-based tests contain mostly or only multiple-choice items.

• When constructivist-based assessments are included, they typically involve short-answer items or writing prompts.

• Almost all states use criterion-referenced scoring, which means that the student's score is evaluated against predetermined standards.

Possible Advantages and Uses of High-Stakes Testing

• A number of policy makers argue that high-stakes state standards-based testing will have a number of positive effects:

1. Improved student performance

2. More time teaching the subjects tested

3. High expectations for all students

4. Identification of poorly performing schools, teachers, and administrators

5. Improved confidence in schools as test scores increase

Criticism of State Standards-Based Tests

• Dumbing down the curriculum with greater emphasis on rote memorization than on problem-solving and critical-thinking skills. In one analysis, most state tests focused on less-demanding knowledge and skills rather than more-complex cognitive skills (Quality Counts, 2001). This narrows the curriculum and focuses it on lower-order cognitive skills.
  Adhering to a test-driven curriculum often means superficial coverage of topics.

• Teaching to the test. Teachers increasingly teach knowledge and skills that are to be covered on the state tests. They spend inordinate amounts of time on test-like activities and practice tests, with less time for actual teaching of important content and skills.

• Discriminating against low-socioeconomic-status (SES) and ethnic minority children. This results when disproportionate percentages of these children do not meet the state standards, while higher-SES and non-Latinx White students do. Researchers have found that students who are placed in the lowest tracks or remedial programs-disproportionately low-income and minority students--are most likely to experience subsequent inferior teaching and reduced achievement (Zusho et al., 2016). There is evidence that high-stakes state standards-based testing that rewards or sanctions schools based on average student scores can create incentives for pushing low-scorers into special education, holding them back a grade, and encouraging them to drop out of school so that the schools' average scores will look better (Darling-Hammond, 2001).

• Narrowing the curriculum. Because of the potential negative consequence of poor performance on state-mandated tests, many schools limit the curriculum to only what is covered on the test. In some cases, non tested subjects, such as foreign language or art, are deemphasized.

• In sum, most current high-stakes tests do not provide information about the types of interventions that would improve students' performance or even vield information about students' strengths and weaknesses.

• the validity of the information that high-stakes tests can provide for evaluating the effectiveness of teachers and schools (for accountability purposes) has been called into question.

• The test provides an opportunity to show how much you have learned.

• While it might be challenging, remember you have learned so much more than is covered on the test, so you should be confident in your ability to do well.

• use challenging tasks that require critical thinking rather than the "drill and kill" approach that emphasizes rote memorization

• It is important not to teach to the test because if you do so, students will miss out on opportunities to become engaged in real-world problems and higher level thinking that actually prepare them better for the exam!

Understanding and Interpreting Test Results

Understanding Descriptive Statistics

• mathematical procedures used to describe and summarize data (information) in a meaningful way.

• We will study frequency distributions, measures of central tendency, measures of variability, and the normal distribution.

Measures of Central Tendency

• a number that provides information about the average, or typical, score in a set of data. There are three primary measures of central tendency: mean, median, and mode.

Measures of Variability

• tell us how much the scores vary from one another.

• Two measures of variability are range and standard deviation.

• To calculate a standard deviation, follow these four steps:

• Find the mean of the scores.

• From each score, subtract the mean and then square the difference between the score and the mean. (Squaring the scores will eliminate any minus signs that result from subtracting the mean.)

• Add the squares and then divide that sum by the number of scores.

• Compute the square root of the value obtained in step 3. This is the standard deviation.

The Normal Distribution

• The farther above or below the mean we travel, the less frequently each score occurs.

• A normal distribution also is called a normal curve, bell-shaped curve, or bell curve.

• Many characteristics, such as human intelligence measured by intelligence tests, athletic ability, weight, and height, follow or approximate a normal distribution.

• Normal distributions are useful to know about because when testing a large number of students with a good standardized test, the graph of resulting scores will tend to resemble a normal curve

Interpreting Test Results:

• Percentile Rank Score: reveals the percentage of the distribution that lies at or below the score. It also provides information about the score's position in relation to the rest of the scores.

• Stanine Score: describes a student's test performance on a 9-point scale ranging from 1 to 9. A stanine refers to a specific percentage of the normal curve's area. A stamine score provides a more general index of a student's performance, whereas a percentile rank score yields a more precise estimation.

• Grade-equivalent Scores: indicates a student's performance in relation to grade level and months of the school year, assuming a 10-month school year, to the norm group. Grade-equivalent scores should be used only to interpret a student's progress, not for grade placement. Because grade-equivalent scores are often misleading and misinterpreted, other types of scores, such as standard scores, are more appropriate.

• Standard Score: is expressed as a deviation from the mean, which involves the concept of standard deviation that we discussed earlier. The term standard as used in standard score does not refer to a specific level of performance or expectation but rather to the standard normal curve.

Don'd Over-interpret Test Results

• Use caution in interpreting small differences in test scores, especially percentile rank and grade-equivalent test scores.

• A good strategy is to think of a score not as a single number but as a location in a band or general range. Small differences in test scores are usually not meaningful.

• Some test reports include percentile bands, a range of scores (rather than a single score) expressed in percentiles, such as 75th to 85th percentile for an obtained score of 80. This is referred to as the standard error of measurement.

• When considering information from a standardized test, don't evaluate it in isolation (McMillan, 2018; Popham, 2020). Evaluate it in conjunction with other information you know about the student and your classroom instruction. Most manuals that accompany standardized tests warn against overinterpretation.

Using Standardized Test Scores To Plan And Improve Instruction

• Any use of standardized test results should be made in conjunction with information from other sources.

• Prior to instruction, standardized test results may provide an indication of the general ability of the students in the class. This can help the teacher select the appropriate level of instruction and materials to begin the school year.

• A standardized test should not be used to develop a very low or very high expectation for a student or the entire class.

• Standardized tests are sometimes used in grouping students. In cooperative learning, it is common to group students so that a wide range of abilities is reflected in the group. However, a single test score or single test should not be used by itself for any instructional purpose. It always should be used in conjunction with other information.

• Standardized tests administered after instruction can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of instruction and the curriculum. Students should score well in the areas that have been emphasized in instruction. If they do not, then both the test itself and the instruction need to be analyzed to determine why this is the case.

• In using standardized tests to plan and improve instruction, we emphasize again, it is important not to use a single test or test score to make decisions.

• Some experts argue that performance tests should be used, either instead of standardized tests that mainly include multiple-choice questions or at least as part of the student's total assessment

• The argument is that performance assessment is more meaningful, involves higher-level thinking skills, and fits better with current educational reform that emphasizes constructivist and social constructivist learning

• use of performance assessments for large-scale assessments can be problematic because their reliability can be low, the amount of time and energy required is often too extensive, and performance assessments don't typically address a wide range of learning outcomes.

• Standardized tests are especially helpful in providing information about comparability from a "big picture" perspective.

Diversity and Standardized Testing

• A special concern is cultural bias in tests and the importance of creating culturally responsive tests for diagnostic and instructional purposes

• Because of the potential for cultural bias in standardized tests, it is important to assess students using a variety of methods.

• As indicated earlier, some assessment experts emphasize that performance and portfolio assessments reduce some of the inequity that characterizes standardized tests for ethnic minority students and students from low-income backgrounds

• portfolio assessment holds promise by focusing instruction on higher-level thinking skills, providing useful feedback to teachers about students' thinking skills, and emphasizing real-world problem solving

• portfolio assessment was used as part of NCLB only for students with severe cognitive disabilities, and assessments used for accountability under ESSA can only be partially delivered as portfolios

• using portfolio and performance assessment as part of large-scale standardized testing can be problematic.

Alternate-Forms Reliability: Reliability judged by giving different forms of the same test on two different occasions to the same group of students to determine how consistent their scores are

Aptitude Test: A type of test that is used to predict a student's ability to learn a skill or accomplish something with further education and training

Central Tendency: A number that provides information about the average, or typical, score in a set of data

Concurrent Validity: The relation between a test's scores and other criteria that are currently (concurrently) available

Construct Validity: The extent to which there is evidence that a test measures a particular construct. A construct is an observable trait or characteristic of a person, such as intelligence, learning style, personality, or anxiety

Content Validity: A test's ability to sample the content that is to be measured

Criterion Validity: The test's ability to predict a student's performance as measured by other assessments or criteria

Criterion-Referenced Tests: Standardized tests in which the student's performance is compared with established criteria

Descriptive Statistics: Mathematical procedures that are used to describe and summarize data (information) in a meaningful way

Frequency Distribution: A listing of scores, usually from highest to lowest, along with the number of times each score appears.

Grade-Equivalent Score: A score that indicates a student’s performance in relation to grade level and months of the school year, assuming a 10-month school year.

High-Stakes Testing: Using tests in a way that will have important consequences for the student, affecting such decisions as whether the student will be promoted or be allowed to graduate.

Histogram: A frequency distribution in the form of a graph.

Mean: The numerical average of a group of scores.

Measures of Variability: Measures that tell how much scores vary from one another.

Median: The score that falls exactly in the middle of a distribution of scores after they have been arranged (or ranked) from highest to lowest.

Mode: The score that occurs most often.

Norm Group: The group of individuals previously tested that provides a basis for interpreting a test score.

Normal Distribution: A “bell-shaped curve” in which most of the scores are clustered around the mean and scores that are far above or below the mean are rare.

Norm-Referenced Tests: Standardized tests in which a student’s score is interpreted by comparing it with how others (the norm group) performed.

Percentile-Rank Score: The percentage of a distribution that lies at or below the score.

Predictive Validity: The relation between test scores and the student’s future performance.

Range: The distance between the highest and lowest scores.

Raw Score: The number of items a student answered correctly on the test.

Reliability: The extent to which a test produces a consistent, reproducible score.

Split-Half Reliability: Reliability judged by dividing the test items into two halves, such as the odd-numbered and even-numbered items. The scores on the two sets of items are compared to determine how consistently the students performed across each set.

Standard Deviation: A measure of how much a set of scores varies on average around the mean of the scores.

Standard Score: A score expressed as a deviation from the mean; involves the standard deviation.

Standardized Tests: Tests with uniform procedures for administration and scoring. They assess students’ performance in different domains and allow a student’s performance to be compared with the performance of other students at the same age or grade level on a national basis.

Standards-Based Tests: Tests that assess skills that students are expected to master before they can be promoted to the next grade or permitted to graduate.

Stanine Score: A 9-point scale that describes a student’s performance.

Test-Retest Reliability: The extent to which a test yields the same performance when a student is given the same test on two or more occasions.

Validity: The extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure and whether inferences about the test scores are accurate and appropriate.

Z-Score: A score that provides information about how many standard deviations a raw score is above or below the mean.

Best-Work Portfolio: A portfolio that showcases the student’s most outstanding work.

Constructed-Response Items: Items that require students to write out information rather than select a response from a menu.

Criterion-Referenced Grading: A grading system that assigns a certain grade for a certain level of performance, regardless of the performance of other students.

Essay Item: Test item that requires more writing than other formats but allows more freedom of response to questions.

Formative Assessment: Assessment during the course of instruction rather than after it is completed.

Grading: Translating descriptive assessment information into letters, numbers, or other marks that indicate the quality of a student’s learning or performance.

Growth Portfolio: A portfolio of work over an extended time frame (throughout the school year or longer) to reveal the student’s progress in meeting learning targets.

Instructional Validity: The extent to which the assessment is a reasonable sample of what went on in the classroom.

Multiple-Choice Item: An objective test item consisting of two parts: a stem plus a set of possible responses.

Norm-Referenced Grading: A grading system based on comparing a student’s performance with that of other students in the class or of other classes and other students.

Objective Tests: Tests that have relatively clear, unambiguous scoring criteria, usually multiple-choice tests.

Performance Assessment: Assessment that requires creating answers or products that demonstrate knowledge and skill; examples include writing an essay, conducting an experiment, carrying out a project, solving a real-world problem, and creating a portfolio.

Performance Criteria: Specific behaviors that students need to perform effectively as part of an assessment.

Portfolio: A systematic and organized collection of a student’s work that demonstrates the student’s skills and accomplishments.

Rubric: A guide that lists specific criteria for grading and scoring academic papers, projects, or tests.

Selected-Response Items: Test items with an objective format in which student responses can be scored quickly. A scoring guide for correct responses is created and can be applied by an examiner or a computer.

Short-Answer Item: A constructed-response format in which students are required to write a word, a short phrase, or several sentences in response to a prompt.

Summative Assessment: Assessment after instruction is finished to document student performance; also called formal assessment.

• NCLB is the U.S. government's effort to hold schools and school districts accountable for the success or failure of their students.

• States are required to create an accountability system that ensures students are making adequate annual progress in the subject areas just mentioned.

  Schools that fail to make adequate yearly progress (AYP) for two consecutive years are labeled "underperforming."

• If underperforming schools don't improve after four years, states are required to implement major staff and curriculum changes in the schools, and if progress is not made after five years, states must close the schools.

• A difficulty in achieving AYP is that it must be achieved not only for the entire school but certain subgroups of students as well, including those who are economically disadvantaged, students from ethnic minority groups, students with disabilities, and students with limited English proficiency

• as part of the No Child Left Behind legislation, states and districts are required to provide report cards that show a school's performance level, so that the public is aware of which schools are underperforming.

• all teachers now are required to be "highly qualified," which means being licensed and having an academic major in the field in which they are teaching.

• The percentage of teachers who fell into the "not highly qualified category" was higher for special education teachers, teachers of limited proficiency English students, middle school teachers, and teachers in schools with high levels of poverty and ethnic minority concentrations.

• One widely adopted criticism stresses that using a single score from a test as the sole indicator of students' and teachers' progress and competence represents a very narrow aspect of students' and teachers' skills.

• Another criticism is that the increased cost of carrying out standardized testing on a statewide basis, including creating tests, administering them, scoring them, and reporting their results to the federal government, comes at a time when most states are facing budget crunches.

• another criticism of NCLB is that high-stakes testing encourages test score inflation. Test score inflation occurs when over the course of several years scores rise but do not reflect actual improvements in student learning.

Common Core

• The Common Core Standards specify what students should know and the skills they should develop at each grade level in various content areas (Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2016).

• Some critics argue that the Standards are simply a further effort by the federal government to control education and that they emphasize a "one size fits all" approach that pays little attention to individual variations in students.

• Supporters say that the Standards provide much-needed detailed guidelines and important milestones for students to achieve

Every Student Succeeds Act

• The law replaced No Child Left Behind in the process of modifying but not completely eliminating standardized testing.

• The new law also allows states to scale back the role that tests have in holding schools accountable for student achievement. And schools must use at least one nonacademic factor-such as student engagement-when tracking schools' success.

• Other aspects of the new law include still requiring states and districts to improve their lowest-performing schools and to ensure that they improve their work with historically underperforming students, such as English-language learners, ethnic minority students, and students with a disability.

• states and districts are required to put in place challenging academic standards, although they can opt out of state standards involving Common Core.

World-Class Standards

1. Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS), which assesses fourth-grade students' reading achievement every five years

2. Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), which tests reading, math, and science achievement of 15-year-old students every three years (first assessment in 2000);

3. Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), which assesses math and science achievement of fourth- and eighth-grade students every four years (the first assessment was in 1995).

Standardized Tests of Teacher Candidates

The PRAXIS tests and state tests for teachers

• Most states now require teacher candidates to take a licensing exam. In some cases, this involves one or more PRAXIS™ tests published by Educational Testing Service or a test that is used only by a particular state.

• (1) basic skills or general academic ability; (2) subject-matter knowledge (such as math, English, science, or social studies); and/or (3) pedagogical knowledge.

• The PRAXIS™ tests consist of PRAXIS IT, PRAXIS II™M, and PRAXIS IlI™. The PRAXIS I™M test is a preliminary screening of basic skills that is often taken early in an undergraduate program or before a student is formally admitted to a teacher certification program.

• Three such criticisms follow (Darling-Hammond & Baratz-Snowden, 2005, pp. 61-62):

  • Tests assess "low-level or marginally relevant knowledge and skills" rather than
    "deep knowledge of subject matter and actual teaching skills."

  • The cutoff scores for the tests sometimes are low or not enforced. If states are experiencing a shortage of teachers, "they often waive the testing requirement" and hire individuals who have failed the test.

  • A lack of consistency across states has restricted teacher mobility.
    This is especially a problem because some states have teacher surpluses while others have teacher shortages.

• Educators and students both value assessment, but say that assessment should support learning.

• Teachers use assessment results frequently to inform their teaching.

• Teachers state that students' performance on classroom tests provides better feedback for students and more instructional support than state accountability tests.

Pre-instruction Assessment

• Much of preinstruction assessment is informal observation.

• In the first several weeks of school, you will have numerous opportunities to observe students' characteristics and behavior. Be sensitive to whether a student is shy or outgoing, has a good or weak vocabulary, speaks and listens effectively, is considerate of others or is egocentric, engages in appropriate or inappropriate behavior, and so on. Also focus on the student's nonverbal behavior for cues that might reveal nervousness, boredom, frustration, or a lack of understanding.

• In preinstruction assessments, guard against developing expectations that will distort your perception of a student.

• Because teacher expectations are potentially powerful influences on student learning, some teachers don't even want to look at a student's prior grades or standardized test scores.

• A good strategy is to treat your initial impressions of students as hypotheses to be supported or modified by subsequent observation and information.

Assessment During Instruction

• One of the most significant trends in classroom assessment is the increasing use of formative assessment, which is assessment during the course of instruction rather than after it is completed.

• An important aspect of being an effective teacher is assessing students understanding, and formative assessment is extremely important in this regard.

• Assessment during instruction helps you set your teaching at a level that challenges students and stretches their thinking. It also helps you to detect which students need your individual attention.

• Assessment during instruction takes place at the same time as you make many other decisions about what to do, say, or ask next to keep the classroom running smoothly and help students actively learn.

• It requires listening to student answers, observing other students for indications of understanding or confusion, framing the next question, and looking around the class for misbehavior

• Simultaneously, the teacher needs to monitor the pace of the activity, decide which students to call on, evaluate answer quality, and structure the sequence of content.

• When you ask questions, remember to avoid overly broad, general questions; involve the whole class in questioning instead of calling on the same students all of the time; allow sufficient "wait time" after asking a question; probe students' responses with follow-up questions; and highly value students' own questions.

• An important goal of student self-assessment is for students to become deeply involved in evaluating their schoolwork so they can more quickly determine how they are progressing.

• Encouraging students to assess their own progress also can increase their self-confidence and motivation to learn.

• Providing effective feedback is an essential aspect of formative assessment and has always been an integral aspect of good teaching

• As part of providing feedback in formative assessment, instructional "correctives" are used to help students make progress.

• Among the important aspects of feedback in formative assessment is that it should be immediate, specific, and individualized.

Post-Instruction Assessment

• Summative assessment (or formal assessment) is assessment after instruction is finished, with the purpose of documenting student performance.

• Assessment after instruction provides information about how well your students have mastered the material, whether students are ready for the next unit, what grades they should be given, what comments you should make to parents, and how you should adapt your instruction

Making Assessment Compatible With Contemporary Views of Learning and Motivation

• Your informal observations can provide information about how motivated students are to study a subject.

• Assessments that are challenging but fair should increase students' enthusiasm for learning. Assessments that are too difficult will lower students' self-esteem and self-efficacy, as well as raise their anxiety. Assessing students with measures that are too easy will bore them and not motivate them to study hard enough.

• Susan Brookhart (1997, 2019) developed a model of how classroom assessment helps motivate students. She argues that every classroom environment hosts a series of repeated assessment events. In each assessment event, the teacher communicates with the students through assignments, activities, and feedback about performance.

• Similarly, many other classroom assessment experts emphasize that if you view motivated, active learning as an important goal of instruction, you should create alternative assessments that are quite different from traditional tests, which don't evaluate how students construct knowledge and understanding, set and reach goals, or think critically and creatively

Creating Clear, Appropriate Learning Targets

• Tying assessment to current views on learning and motivation also involves developing clear, appropriate learning goals, or targets. A learning target consists of what students should know and be able to do. You should establish criteria for judging whether students have attained the learning target

Establishing High-quality Assessments

Validity

• validity refers to the extent to which assessment measures what it is intended to measure and the appropriateness of inference from and uses of the information

• Linking instruction and assessment in the classroom leads to the concept of instructional validity: the extent to which the assessment is a reasonable sample of what actually went on in the classroom

• For instructional validity, it is important that the teacher competently instructed students in how to solve the problems and gave students adequate opportunities to practice this skill.

• An important strategy for validity in classroom assessment is to systematically link learning targets, content, instruction, and assessment

Reliability

• reliability is the extent to which a test produces consistent, reproducible scores.

• Reliable scores are stable, dependable, and relatively free from errors of measurement. Consistency depends on circumstances involved in taking the test and student factors that vary from one test to another

• Reliability is reduced by errors in measurement. A student can have adequate knowledge and skill and still not perform consistently across several assessments because of a number of factors.

• Internal factors can include health, motivation, and anxiety.

• External factors can include inadequate directions given by the teacher, ambiguously created items, poor sampling of information, and inefficient scoring of the student's responses.

1. selected-response items

2. constructed-response items

Selected Response items

• Selected-response items have an objective format that allows students' responses to be scored quickly. A scoring key for correct responses is created and can be applied by an examiner or by a computer. Multiple-choice, true/false, and matching items are the most widely used types of items in selected-response tests.

Multiple-Choice Items

• A multiple-choice item consists of two parts: the stem plus a set of possible responses. The stem is a question or statement. Incorrect alternatives are called distractors. The student's task is to select the correct answer rather than choosing one of the distractors

• Susan Brookhart (2015) recent described two advantages that multiple-choice items provide:

1. They only require choice, not extensive written or spoken answers, which means that students who do not have well-developed written or oral language skills can still display their thinking skills

2. by using multiple-choice items teachers can ask and students answer far more multiple-choice questions than open-ended questions in a specified period of time. This allows teachers to ask questions about more aspects of the content that students are learning.

• For most classroom requirements, simply count the number of answers marked correctly. Some teachers penalize students for guessing by deducting for wrong answers, but assessment experts say that this probably is not worth the extra bother and frequently leads to mistakes in scoring.

True/False Items

• A true/false item asks a student to mark whether a statement is true or false-for example

• The ease with which true/false items can be constructed has a potential drawback. Teachers sometimes take statements directly from a text or modify them slightly when making up true/false items. Avoid this practice, because it tends to encourage rote memorization with little understanding of the material.

• Strengths;

1. The item is useful for outcomes where there are only two possible alternatives (e.g., fact or opinion, valid or invalid).

2. Less demand is placed on reading ability than in multiple-choice items.

3. A relatively large number of items can be answered in a typical testing period.

4. Scoring is easy, objective, and reliable.

• Limitations;

1. It is difficult to write items at a high level of knowledge and thinking that are free from ambiguity.

2. When a student indicates correctly that a statement is false, that response provides no evidence that the student knows what is correct.

3. No diagnostic information is provided by the incorrect answers.

4. Scores are more influenced by guessing than with any other item type.

Matching Items

• Used by many teachers with younger students, matching requires students to connect one group of stimuli correctly with a second group of stimuli.

• Matching is especially well suited for assessing associations or links between two sets of information.

• Matching tests are convenient for teachers in that

1. their compact form requires little space, thus making it easy to assess quite a lot of information efficiently

2. they can be easily scored by using a correct-answer template

• But matching tests may tend to ask students to connect trivial information.

• Also, most matching tasks require students to connect information they have simply memorized, although items can be constructed that measure more complex cognitive skills.

Constructed-Response Items

• Constructed-response items require students to write out information rather than select a response from a menu. Short-answer and essay items are the most commonly used forms of traditional constructed response items. In scoring, many constructed-response items require judgment on the part of the examiner.

Short-Answer Items

• a constructed-response format in which students are required to write a word, a short phrase, or several sentences in response to a prompt.

• The short-answer format allows recall and could provide a problem-solving assessment of a wide range of material.

• The disadvantages of short-answer questions are that they can require judgment in scoring and typically measure rote learning.

Essays

• allow students more freedom of response to questions but require more writing than other formats.

• Essay items are especially good for assessing students' understanding of material, higher-level thinking skills, ability to organize information, and writing skills.

• Suggestions for writing good essay items include these;

1. Specify limitations. Be sure to specify the length of the desired answer and the weight that will be given to each item in determining scores or judgments.

2. Structure and clarify the task. Make clear what your students are supposed to write about. A poorly worded item is "Who was George Washington?" This could be answered in six words: "First president of the United States." In cases like this, ask yourself what more you want the student to tell.

3. Ask questions in a direct way. Don't get too tricky. You might hear the term rubric used in regard to scoring students' responses on essays and other tests. In this context, rubric simply means a scoring system.

• One current trend is to require students to solve some type of authentic problem or to perform in terms of completing a project or demonstrating other skills outside the context of a test or an essay

• Such alternative assessments are needed to make instruction compatible with contemporary views of learning and motivation.

• Alternative assessments offer students more choices than they would have in taking a test or writing an essay

• Authentic assessment means evaluating a student's knowledge or

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  skill in a context that approximates the real world or real life as closely as possible.

• Traditional assessment has involved the use of paper-and-pencil tests that are often far removed from real-world contexts. An increasing trend is to assess students with items that more closely reflect reality.

• Critics of authentic assessment argue that such assessments are not necessarily superior to more conventional assessments, such as multiple-choice and essay tests

• They say that the proponents of authentic assessment rarely present data in support of the validity of authentic assessments.

• They also point out that authentic assessments don't adequately examine knowledge and basic skills.

Performance Assessment

• Moving from traditional assessment with objective tests to performance assessment has been described as going from "knowing" to "showing"

• Performance assessments include what is commonly thought of as students' actual performances (such as in dance, music, art, and physical education), as well as papers, projects, oral presentations, experiments, and portfolios.

• Some disciplines, such as art, music, and physical education, have been using performance assessments for many years. The major change in performance assessment has involved introducing these forms of assessment into the traditional "academic areas." Indeed, recently there has been increased interest in including performance assessments in state assessment of students' learning and progress

Features of Performance Assessment

• Performance assessments often include an emphasis on "doing" open-ended activities for which there is no correct, objective answer and that may assess higher -level thinking

• Examples of open-ended activities include conducting an experiment, developing a plan for a new park, analyzing government or school policies to make the case for or against, and reimagining a novel through a new medium like a painting or play.

• Evaluating performance often includes direct methods of evaluation, self-assessment, assessment of group performance as well as individual performance, and an extended period of time for assessment.

• Traditional tests emphasize what students know. Performance assessments are designed to evaluate what students know and can do.

• Performance assessments use direct methods of evaluation, such as evaluating writing samples to assess writing skills and judging oral presentations to assess speaking skills. Observing a student give an oral presentation is a more direct assessment than asking the student a series of questions about speaking skills on a paper-and-pencil test.

• Some performance assessments also involve having students evaluate their own performance. This emphasis shifts responsibility away from teachers and places it more squarely on the student's shoulders.

• A rubric is a guide that lists specific criteria for grading and scoring academic papers, projects, or tests. For example, students might be required to evaluate a scrapbook that they have created.

Guidelines for Performance Assessment

• Guidelines for performance assessment cover four general issues;

1. Establishing a clear purpose

2. identifying observable criteria

3. providing an appropriate setting

4. judging or scoring the performance

• Make sure that any performance assessment has a clear purpose and that a clear decision can be made from the assessment.

• The purposes can be diverse: to assign a grade, to evaluate a student's progress, to recognize the important steps in a performance, to generate products to be included in a learning portfolio, to provide concrete examples of students' work for admission to college or other programs, and so forth.

• Performance criteria are specific behaviors that students need to perform effectively as part of the assessment.

• Without such criteria, your observations can be unsystematic and haphazard. Communicating these performance criteria to students at the beginning of instruction lets students know how to focus their learning.

• Once you have clearly outlined the performance criteria, it is important to specify the setting in which you will observe the performance or product.

• Scoring rubrics involve the criteria that are used to judge performance, what the range in the quality of the performance should look like, what score should be given and what that score means, and how the different levels of quality should be described and differentiated from one another.

• In preparing a rubric, you may want to;

1. Include a scale of possible points to be assigned in scoring work. High numbers usually are assigned to the best work. Scales typically use 4, 5, or 6 as the highest score, down to 1 or 0 for the lowest score.

2. Provide descriptors for each performance criterion to increase reliability and avoid biased scoring.

3. Decide whether the rubric will be generic, genre-specific, or task-specific. If generic, the rubric can be used to judge a broad performance, such as communication or problem solving. If genre-specific, the rubric applies to a more specific type of performance, such as an essay, a speech, or a narrative as a form of communication; open-ended or closed-end problems as kinds of problems solved. A task-specific rubric is unique to a single task, such as a single math problem or a speech on a specific topic.

4. Decide whether the rubric should be longitudinal. This type of rubric assesses progress over time toward mastery of educational objectives. One strategy for developing rubrics is to work backward from exemplars-examples of student work (McMillan, 1997): "These exemplars can be analyzed to determine what descriptors distinguish them. The examples can also be used as anchor papers for making judgments, and can be given to students to illustrate the dimensions"

   (p. 218). An anchor is a sample of work or performance used to set the specific performance standard for a rubric level. Thus, attached to a paragraph describing a six-level performance in writing might be two or three samples of writing to illustrate several levels

Evaluating Performance Assessment

• Many educational psychologists support the increased use of performance-based assessment

• They contend that performance assessments involve students more in their learning, encourage higher-level thinking skills, can measure what is really important in the curriculum, and can tie assessment more to real-world, real-life experiences.

• Strategies For Developing Scoring Rubrics; Match the type of rating with the purpose of the assessment, share the criteria with students prior to instruction, build your rubrics from the top - starting from a description of an exemplary performance, carefully construct the rubric language for each criterion or score, make rubrics more authentic, show students models, take appropriate steps to minimize scoring errors

• performance assessments often "take considerably more time to construct, administer, and score than objective tests"

• Administrative. Grades help determine students' class rank, credits for graduation, and whether a student should be promoted to the next grade.

• Informational. Grades can be used to communicate with students, parents, and others (such as admissions officers for subsequent schooling) about a student's work. A grade represents the teacher's overall conclusion about how well a student has met instructional objectives and learning targets.

• Motivational. Many students work harder because they are extrinsically motivated by a desire for high grades and a fear of low grades.

• Guidance. Grades help students, parents, and counselors to select appropriate courses and levels of work for students. They provide information about which students might require special services and what levels of future education students will likely be able to handle

The Components Of a Grading System

• Three main types of teacher judgments underlie a teacher's grading system;

1. what standard of comparison will I use for grading?

2. What aspects of students' performance will I use to establish grades?

3. How will I weight different kinds of evidence in giving grades?

Standards of comparison:

• A students performance can be graded by comparing it with the performance of other students or to predefined standards of performance.

Comparing Performance Across Students

• Norm-referenced grading is a grading system based on comparison of a student's performance with that of other students in the class or of other classes and other students.

• In such a system, students get high grades for performing better than most of their classmates, and students get low grades for performing worse.

• Norm-referenced grading is commonly referred to as grading on the curve.

• In norm-referenced grading, the grading scale determines what percentages of students get particular grades.

• Norm-referenced grading has been criticized for reducing students' motivation, increasing their anxiety, increasing negative interactions among students, and hindering learning.

• Consequently, norm-referenced grading is not widely used.

Comparing Performance with a Predetermined Standard

• Criterion-referenced grading is being used when students receive a certain grade for a certain level of performance, regardless of any comparison with the work of other students.

• Sometimes criterion-referenced grading is called absolute grading. Typically, criterion-referenced grading is based on the proportion of points attained on a test or the level of mastery reached in a performance skill, such as giving an oral presentation and meeting all the predetermined criteria.

• Criterion-referenced grading is recommended over norm-referenced grading.

• Standards-based grading is a recent development based on criterion-referenced grading.

• It involves basing grading on standards that students are expected to achieve in a course. In some cases, national associations, such as the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM), have developed standards that students should achieve.

• Rubrics are often used in standards-based grading to indicate the degree to which students have met standards.

Aspects of Performance:

• include test and quiz results, as well as various alternative assessments such as oral reports, projects, interviews, and homework.

• In the view of other educators, grades should be based mainly on academic performance, but teacher ratings of motivation, effort, and participation can be factored in as well.

• Some educators advocate factoring characteristics such as motivation, effort, and participation into grades, especially by giving borderline students a plus or minus.

• However, other educators stress that grades should be based only on academic performance.

• One of the problems with including factors such as effort in grades is the difficulty in determining the reliability and validity of evaluations of effort.

• Measures of effort or improvement can be made more systematic and reliable by developing scoring rubrics and examples

• High-quality classroom assessment is not only valid and reliable but also fair

• Assessment is fair when all students have an equal opportunity to learn and demonstrate their knowledge and skill.

• Assessment is fair when teachers have developed appropriate learning targets, provided competent content and instruction to match those targets, and chosen assessments that reflect the targets, content, and instruction.

• Assessment bias includes offensiveness and unfair penalization

• An assessment is biased if it is offensive to a subgroup of students - This occurs when negative stereotypes of particular subgroups are included in the test.

• An assessment also may be biased if it unfairly penalizes a student based on the student's group membership, such as ethnicity, socioeconomic status, gender, religion, and disability.

• Some assessment experts believe it is important to create a philosophy of pluralistic assessment, which includes being responsive to cultural diversity in the classroom and at school. This usually includes performance assessments during instruction and after instruction.

• Geneva Gay (1997) evaluated the role of ethnicity and culture in assessment and recommended a number of culturally responsive strategic in assessing students. She advocates;

1. modifying the Eurocentric nature of current U.S. instruction and achievement assessments

2. using a wider variety of assessment methods that take into account the cultural styles of students of color

3. evaluating students against their own records

4. assessing students in ways that serve culturally appropriate diagnostic and developmental functions.

• Gay (1997) notes that achievement assessments "are designed to determine what students know. Presumably they reflect what has been taught in schools"

• She points out that even mastery of skills tends to be

  "transmitted through Eurocentric contexts. For instance, achievement tests may embed skills in scenarios that are not relevant to the cultural backgrounds and life experiences of students of color"

• A good strategy is to use a variety of assessment methods to ensure that no single method gives an advantage to one ethnic group over another.

• These methods should include socioemotional measures as well as measures of academic content.

  Teachers also should carefully observe and monitor students' performance for verbal and nonverbal information in the assessment context.

Current Trends

• Using at least some performance-based assessment. Historically, classroom assessment has emphasized the use of objective tests, such as multiple-choice, which have relatively clear, unambiguous scoring criteria. In contrast, performance assessments require students to create answers or products that demonstrate their knowledge or skill.
  Examples of performance assessment include writing an essay, conducting an experiment, carrying out a project, solving a real-world problem, and creating a portfolio (Stanley, 2014; Stiggins, 2008).

• Examining higher-level cognitive skills. Rather than assess only content knowledge, as many objective tests do, a current trend is to evaluate a student's higher-level cognitive skills, such as problem solving, critical thinking, decision making, drawing of inferences, and strategic thinking. There are a number of online assessment tools that can be used to assess students' higher-level thinking. Among the best online assessment tools for this purpose are Kahoot! and Socrative, which can deploy your multiple-choice, true-false, or short-answer questions. Note that the thinking level assessed depends on the way you ask your questions. Case-based questions are more likely to require thinking at levels greater than recalling facts, as are items like those in the Praxis ™M practice sections of this book, which require application and evaluation..

• Using multiple assessment methods. In the past, assessment meant using test -often a multiple-choice test -as the sole means of assessing a student. A current trend is to use multiple methods to assess students. Thus, a teacher might use any number of these methods: a multiple-choice test, an essay, an interview, a project, a portfolio, and student evaluations of themselves. Multiple assessments provide a broader view of the child's learning and achievement than a single measure.

• Using more multiple-choice items to prepare students for taking high-stakes state standards-based tests. Just when a trend in assessment that was more compatible with cognitive, constructivist, and motivational approaches (performance assessment, use of portfolios, and student self-assessment) had developed, teachers returned to using objective formats for assessment, in many cases more than before. In assessment expert James McMillan's (2007) view, many teachers need to balance the demands of tests mandated by No Child Left Behind
  "with what they know about best practices of teaching and assessment that maximize student learning and motivation. Clearly, classroom assessment must be considered in the current climate that emphasizes high-stakes testing" (p. 19).

• Having high performance standards. Another trend is the demand for high performance standards, even world-class performance standards, for interpreting educational results. World-class performance standards can benefit contemporary classroom assessment by providing goals, or targets, to attain. However, questions arise about who should set these standards and whether they should be set at all.

• Using computers as part of assessment. Traditionally, computers have been used to score tests, analyze test results, and report scores. Today, computers increasingly are being used to construct and administer tests, as well as to present different assessment formats to students in a multimedia environment (Greenhow, 2015; Russell, 2020). With coming advances in technology, assessment practices are likely to be very different from traditional paper-and-pencil tests. Moreover, using technology to administer assessments can facilitate the application of universal design for learning (UDL) by providing alternative formats that enhance accessibility (Russell, 2020).

• A portfolio consists of a systematic and organized collection of a student's work that demonstrates the student's skills and accomplishments.

• scrapbook. To qualify for inclusion in a portfolio, each piece of work should be created and organized in a way that demonstrates progress and purpose.

• Portfolios can include many different types of work, such as writing samples, journal entries, videotapes, art, teacher comments, posters, interviews, poetry, test results, problem solutions, recordings of foreign language communication, self-assessments, and any other expression of the student that the teacher believes demonstrates the student's skills and accomplishments.

• Portfolios can be collected on paper, in photographs, and in digital formats such as shared files and folders using cloud-based tools. Today, portfolios can be created using cloud-based portfolio tools.

• Four classes of evidence that can be placed in students' portfolios; artifacts, reproductions, attestations, productions

Using Portfolios Effectively:

• Effective us of portfolios for assessment requires;

1. establishing the portfolio's purpose

2. involving the student in decision about it

3. reviewing the portfolio with the student

4. setting criteria for evaluation

5. scoring and judging the portfolio

6. student self-reflection

Establishing Purpose

• A growth portfolio consists of the student's work over an extended time frame (throughout the school year or even longer) to reveal the student's progress in meeting learning targets.

• Growth portfolios also are sometimes referred to as

  "developmental portfolios." Growth portfolios are especially helpful in providing concrete evidence of how much a student has changed or learned over time. As students examine their portfolios, they can see for themselves how much they have improved.

• It is designed to replace report cards and grades as a way to demonstrate growth and accomplishments.

• A best-work portfolio showcases the student's most outstanding work. Sometimes it even is called a "showcase portfolio."

• "Passportfolios," or "proficiency portfolios," are sometimes used to demonstrate competence and readiness to move on to a new level of work.

• Under No Child Left Behind, a number of states used portfolios as alternative proficiency assessments for students with severe disabilities who were unable to participate in standardized testing.

Involving Students in Selecting Portfolio Materials

• Many teachers let students make at least some of the decisions about the portfolio's contents. When students are allowed to choose the contents for their own portfolios, a good strategy is to encourage self-reflection by having them write a brief description of why they chose each piece of work.

Reviewing With Students

• Explain to students at the beginning of the year what portfolios are and how they will be used. You also should have a number of student-teacher conferences throughout the year to review the student's progress and help the student to plan future work for the portfolio

Setting Criteria for Evaluation

• Clear and systematic performance criteria are essential for effectively using portfolios. Clear learning targets for students make developing performance criteria much easier. Ask yourself what knowledge and skills you want your students to have. This should be the focus of your teaching and your performance criteria.

Scoring and Judging

• when its purpose is to diagnose, reflect improvement, provide evidence for effective instruction, motivate students to reflect on their work, or give grades to students, summary scoring and judgments are needed.

• When the portfolio's purpose is to provide descriptive information about the student for the teacher at the next grade level, no scoring or summarizing of the portfolio might be necessary.

Evaluating the Role of Portfolios in Assessment:

• Learning portfolios have several strengths:

  Their comprehensive nature captures the complexity and completeness of the student's work and accomplishments. They provide opportunities for encouraging student decision making and self-reflection. They motivate students to think critically and deeply. And they provide an excellent mechanism for evaluating student progress and improvement.

• Learning portfolios also have several weaknesses: They take considerable time to coordinate and evaluate. Their complexity and uniqueness make them difficult to evaluate, and their reliability is often much lower than that of traditional tests. And their use in large-scale assessments (such as statewide evaluation) is expensive. However, even with these weaknesses in mind, most educational psychology experts and educational organizations, such as the National Education Association, support the use of portfolios.

• One reason for this is that when a student's grade depends on homework or other work done outside class, parents might be tempted to do their child's work to ensure a high grade.

• Another reason is that including homework as a component of grading favors students from more supportive home environments.

• As with other aspects of classroom assessment, your judgment is involved in how you synthesize information to arrive at a student's grade.

Reporting Students' Progress and Grades to Parents

The Report Card:

• The report card is a standard method of reporting students' progress and grades to parents

• 2018). The form of judgments on report cards varies from one school system to another, and, in many cases, from one grade level to another. Some report cards convey letter grades

• Other report cards have a pass/fail category in one or more subjects.

• Yet other report cards have checklists indicating skills or objectives the student has attained.

• Some report cards have categories for affective characteristics, such as effort, cooperation, and other appropriate and inappropriate behaviors.

• Checklists of skills and objectives are mainly used in elementary schools or kindergartens. In the higher elementary school grade levels and secondary schools, letter grades are mainly used, although these might be accompanied by other information such as written comments.

Written Progress Reports:

• Another reporting strategy is to provide parents with a weekly, biweekly, or monthly report of the student's progress and achievement (McMillan,

  2018). These written reports can include the student's performance on tests and quizzes, projects, oral reports, and so on. They also can include information about the student's motivation, cooperation, and behavior, as well as suggestions for how parents can help students improve their performance.

Parent-Teacher Conferences:

• Parent-teacher conferences are another way to communicate information about grades and assessment. Such conferences are both a responsibility and an opportunity. Parents have a right to know how their child is doing in school and how their child might improve. Conferences provide an opportunity for teachers to give parents helpful information about how they can be partners with the teacher in helping the child learn more effectively.

Some Issues in Grading

Should a Missed Assignment or Paper Receive a Zero?:

• One grading issue is whether a student should be given a zero or at least some points for a missed assignment or paper. Including a zero with other scores badly skews the mean of the scores. Many experts on assessment recommend not using a zero in this manner because it weights the assignment or paper more than what was intended because the interval between O and 65 or 70 is more than the intervals between the scores for other grades (McMillan, 2018). Using a score of 60 for a missed assignment or paper is considered more reasonable

should teachers go strictly by the numbers in grading?

• A concern in making out grades is that too many teachers engage in

  "mindless" number crunching, which is now more likely to occur with grading software available. No matter how objective the process is for averaging scores and grades, grading is a matter of professional judgment.

  Going strictly by the numbers can result in a grade that is not consistent with the actual knowledge and skill of the student, especially if pulled down by minor assignments and homework, or a later paper. In the end, it is important for teachers to be confident that the grade they give reflects what the student knows, understands, and is able to do in relation to standards of performance (McMillan, 2018).

Should grading be abolished?:

• Occasionally there are calls to abandon grades, usually based on the belief that evaluation of students is necessary but that competitive grading deemphasizes learning in favor of judging.

• Critics argue that grading discourages the vast majority of students, especially those who receive below-average grades. The critics often call for more constructive evaluation that encourages students to engage in maximum effort by underscoring their strengths, identifying concrete ways to improve, and providing positive feedback. Critics also point out that grading often motivates students to study only the material that will be on the test.

• Regardless of whether you like the way grading is currently conducted or think it should be drastically changed, in the foreseeable future it is important for you to take grading your students seriously and do it in a way that is fair to your students.

• Never use grades to reward or punish students because you like them or don't like them. Always base students' grades on how well they have learned the subject matter, based on objective evidence of learning.

Is There Too Much Grade Inflation?:

• Some teachers do not like to give low grades because they point out that they diminish the student's motivation to learn. However, some critics argue that grade inflation, especially in the form of giving high grades for mediocre performance, gives students a false belief that they are learning and achieving more than they actually are. The result is that many students discover that they can perform well below their ability and still achieve high grades.

• the classroom is a sociocultural "third space", a place for students to explore their individual and collective identities through types of discourse, uses of language, and emotional support

• The CRT teacher approach the classroom environment with a "widow dressing" mindset that reflects, communicates, and shapes values.

• When our neuroceptive mechanisms conform that our surroundings are physically, socially, and intellectually safe, we go into a state of relaxed alertness and are primed for learning.

• When our sense read the environmental cues as threatening because of cultural mis-match or subtle microagressions, the brain goes on alert and triggers stress-producing defensive strategies

• If we want the classroom environment to be a third place, we have to carefully reexamine the elements in the environment that are visual representations of core collectivist values about learning and intellectual character, we must ask ourselves;

1. what values do we want to communicate through our environment?

2. How do we want children to experience their time in our classroom?

3. What do the artifacts on the walls communicate to students, parents, or me about what is important?

4. What do we want the environment to "teach" those who are in it?

Classroom Aesthetics and Symbols

• Purchase inexpensive prints to hang of contemporary and traditional artists representing cultures in your classroom

• establish an "artwork on loan" program where parents "loan" the classroom their artwork for a period of time

• use colors or artistic styles representing students' culture as a visual backdrop on bulletin boards year round. Incorporate them into art activities

• bring in photographs of murals and other community art into the classroom. Partner with local art organizations to get access to interesting photos

• Bring photographs of murals and other community art intro the classroom. Partner with local art organizations to get access to interesting photos

• Decorate with authentic textiles and handcrafts as accents not "artifacts"

• Include naturalistic elements signifying nature (air, earth, water, and fire)

• Post diagrams of patents from engineers and inventors of color

• Remember that signs and symbols around us communicate with our collective unconscious mind

• think about the concrete objects and symbols that you can display or integrate into classroom.

• think about the cultural values of your students and display or integrate into the classroom

Routines and Rituals:

Routines

• In the culturally responsive classroom, routines are a way to make space for the important affirming/communal activities that create social bonds among students

• over time, routines become invisible and part of the classroom culture that helps create a positive energy and the classroom's ethos.

• focus on one or more of the key collectivist values; design common routines to emphasize interdependency and social connection

• Ideas for how to reimagine routines that are culturally responsive;

1. open the day with a centering activity versus a traditional morning meeting

2. use music or call and response to facilitate transitions from one activity to another

3. create after lunch transition routines to help students get their heads back into schoolwork

4. create routines for "parallel" independent work or sponge or anchor activities

• It is important to discuss with the students why routine are important

Rituals

• The those in the classroom has to support students to adopt a positive academic mindset

• rituals as part of the classroom culture help combine emotional vitality and spiritually, two core values in collectivist cultures.

• The branch of neuroscience called "contemplative neuroscience" helps us understand the power of rituals

• with the repetition of ritual, the brain learns to associate sensory experiences - the sound, smell, and feelings of ceremony - with the spiritual practice.

• Once those links are formed, sensory cues can bring us back to a contemplative state very powerfully and quickly

• rituals can reinforce elements of academic mindset such as; "I belong" or "I can do this"

• Another major benefit of established rituals and routine is that they capitalize on our brains' ability to put desirable behaviors on autopilot, allowing us to reach our goals even the we are distracted or preoccupied with other things

• some classroom ritual ideas for affirmation and validation;

1. institute the morning recitation of common poem or verse

2. as a class, watch and respond to short, inspiring TED (technology, entertainment, and design) talks or uplifting poetry

3. Share and reflect on community wisdom

4. begin a new unit with the reading of quotes

Student Agency And Voice

• one of the primary ways students develop a sense of agency and independence is through language and talk

• Language/talking helps us process our learning and expand our thinking when we hear the ideas of others

• Vygotsky refers to this as out sociocultural nature of learning

• The classroom has to be designed around talk and task structures that allow students to define the people they see themselves becoming

• the traditional talk structures in the most classrooms revolve around a passive-receptive style, meaning students are passive learners and most discourse is centered around "teacher talk"

• when students have a chance to narrate their lives, put language to their experience, put language to their experience, and process their thinking through discourse they begin to notice and name their own competence

• In collectivist cultures, the primary way we name and notice is through a variety of talk structure, each with its own situational appropriateness

• consider how you will include social and academic talk structures

Social Talk Structures

• culturally oriented speakers expect listeners to engage them actively through vocalization, motion, or movement as they are speaking

• culturally and linguistically diverse students participate in what is called "cooperative overlapping", recognizable by the way students jump in when someone someone else is talking and begins talking

• it's also called rapport-talk because it is a communication pattern used to build community

• allow space for rapport-talk as a warm up to a lesson or unit

• consider also incorporating less traditional tools such as digital storytelling that allow students to share issues important to them

• a discourse structure that fives each speaker equal time to talk structure students encounter in the classroom

Academic Talk Structures

• instructional conversation; the ability to form, express, and exchange ideas is best taught through dialogue, questioning, and the sharing of ideas

• instructional conversation provides the space to do this type of processing

• instructional conversation is focused on giving students language to talk about their own learning and thinking processes

• there are a variety of tools you can use to provide flexible scaffolding without rigid structure to help dependent learners build their capacity and stamina to engage in meaningful academic dialogue

• three powerful protocols easily incorporated into elementary or secondary classrooms to scaffold instructional conversation;

1. Helping Trios; each student presents something they are working on and get help from classmates

2. Chalk Talk; Using markers and a one large sheet of butcher paper, in silence students write responses to an essential question related to a unit or lesson. Students are able to build on other ideas written

3. World Café; Students rotate through tables discussing an essential question and recording parts of their conversation

Implications For Supporting Dependent Learners and Building Intellective Capacity

• We should not underestimate the power of the classroom community to support dependent learners' move toward more independent learning

• the feeling, tone, structure of a welcoming classroom can help students enter and maintain a state of relaxed alertness that lays the foundation for authentic engagement

• routines and rituals help reinforce students' cognitive development by instilling a sense of order and process

Management Issues in Elementary and Secondary School Classrooms

• At all levels of education, good managers design classrooms for optimal learning, create positive environments for learning, establish and maintain rules, get students to cooperate, effectively deal with problems, and use good communication strategies.

• In many elementary schools, teachers face the challenge of managing the same 20 to 25 children for the entire day.

• In middle and high schools, teachers face the challenge of managing five or six different groups of 20 to 25 adolescents for about 50 minutes each day.

• Compared with secondary school students, elementary school students spend much more time with the same students in the small space of a single classroom, and having to interact with the same people all day can breed feelings of confinement and boredom and other problems.

• secondary school teachers have less time with each student in the classroom, it can be more difficult for them to establish personal relationships with students.

• secondary school teachers need to get the classroom lesson moving quickly and manage time effectively because class periods are so short.

• Because most secondary school students have more advanced reasoning skills than elementary school students, they might demand more elaborate and logical explanations of rules and discipline.

The Crowded, Complex, and Potentially Chaotic Classroom

• Classrooms are multidimensional. Classrooms are the setting for many activities, ranging from academic activities such as reading, writing, and math to social activities such as playing games, communicating with friends, and arguing. Teachers have to keep records and keep students on a schedule. Work has to be assigned, monitored, collected, and evaluated. Students have individual needs that are more likely to be met when the teacher takes them into account.

• Activities occur simultaneously. Many classroom activities occur simultaneously. One cluster of students might be writing at their desks, another might be discussing a story with the teacher, one student might be picking on another, others might be talking about what they are going to do after school, and so on.

• Things happen quickly. Events often occur rapidly in classrooms and frequently require an immediate response. For example, two students suddenly argue about the ownership of a notebook, a student complains that another student is copying her answers, a student speaks out of turn, a student marks on another student's arm with a felt-tip pen, two students abruptly start bullying another student, or a student is rude to you.

• • Events are often unpredictable. Even though you might carefully plan the day's activities and be highly organized, events will occur that you never expect: A fire alarm goes off; a student gets sick; two students get into a fight; a computer won't work; a previously unannounced assembly takes place; the heat goes off in the middle of winter; and so

  on.

  • There is little privacy. Classrooms are public places where students observe how the teacher handles discipline problems, unexpected events, and frustrating circumstances. Some teachers report that they feel like they are in a "fishbowl," or constantly onstage. Much of what happens to one student is observed by other students, and students make attributions about what is occurring. In one case, they might perceive that the teacher is being unfair in the way she disciplines a student. In another, they might appreciate her sensitivity to a student's feelings.

• Classrooms have histories. Students have memories of what happened earlier in their classroom. They remember how the teacher handled a discipline problem earlier in the year, which students have gotten more privileges than others, and whether the teacher abides by his promises. Because the past affects the future, it is important for teachers to manage the classroom today in a way that will support rather than undermine learning tomorrow. This means that the first several weeks of the school year are critical for establishing effective management principles.

Getting Off to the Right Start

• One key to managing the complexity of the classroom is to make careful use of the first few days and weeks of school. To accomplish this goal, you will need to engage in advance planning before the school year begins to determine how you are going to manage the classroom on the first day and beyond

• At the beginning of the school year, you will want to;

1. communicate your rules and procedures to the class and get students cooperation in following them

2. get students to engage effectively in all learning activities

Emphasizing Instruction and a Positive Classroom Climate

• Despite the public's belief that a lack of discipline is the number one problem in schools, educational psychology emphasizes ways to develop and maintain a positive classroom environment that supports learning

• This involves using preventive, proactive strategies rather than becoming immersed in reactive disciplinary tactics.

• In a classic study, Jacob Kounin (1970) was interested in discovering how teachers responded to student misbehaviors. Kounin was surprised to find that effective and ineffective classroom managers responded in very similar ways to the misbehaviors. What the effective managers did far better than the ineffective managers was manage the group's activities. Researchers in educational psychology consistently find that teachers who competently guide and structure classroom activities are more effective than teachers who emphasize their disciplinary role

• Historically, the effectively managed classroom has been described as a

  "well-oiled machine," but a more appropriate metaphor for today's effectively managed classroom is a "beehive of activity"

• students should be actively learning and busily engaged in tasks that they are motivated to do rather than quietly and passively sitting in their seats. Often they will be interacting with each other and the teacher as they construct their knowledge and understanding.

Management Goals and Strategies

• Effective classroom management has two main goals: to help students spend more time on learning and less time on non-goal-directed activity, and to prevent students from developing academic and emotional problems.

• Help Students Spend More Time on Learning and Less Time on Non-Goal-Directed Activity

• Effective classroom management will help you maximize your instructional time and your students' learning time.

Prevent Students from Developing Problems

• A well-managed classroom not only fosters meaningful learning but also helps prevent academic and emotional problems from developing (Eisenman et al., 2015). Well-managed classrooms keep students busy with engaging, appropriately challenging tasks, have activities in which students become absorbed and motivated to learn, and establish clear rules and regulations students must abide by.

• In such classrooms, students are less likely to develop academic and emotional problems. By contrast, in poorly managed classrooms, students' academic and emotional problems are more likely to fester. The academically unmotivated student becomes even less motivated. The shy student becomes more reclusive. The bully becomes meaner.

Managing instruction

• Classroom management involves not only managing student behaviors but also managing instruction

• Ideally, the two go hand in hand-students who are engaged in learning tasks are less likely to develop behavior problems. Recently classroom response systems have been used as part of classroom management

• Using student response systems, teachers have the ability to pose questions and give practice to whole classes of students, and to gather instant data on all of their students, which can be used to quickly assess comprehension

• it encourages active student participation and helps students explore what they know and don't know-and hence take control of their own learning.

• Common outcomes include increases in student engagement, teacher awareness of student knowledge, and student understanding of content. For example, a review of the research on Kahoot! found that it has positive effects on learning performance, classroom dynamics, attitudes, and anxiety

Principles of Classroom Arrangement

• Reduce congestion in high-traffic areas. Distraction and disruption can often occur in high-traffic areas. These include group work areas, students' desks, the teacher's desk, the pencil sharpener, bookshelves, computer stations, and storage locations. Separate these areas from each other as much as possible and make sure they are easily accessible.

• Make sure that you can easily see all students. An important management task is to carefully monitor students. To do this, you will need to be able to see all students at all times. Make sure there is a clear line of sight between your desk, instructional locations, students' desks, and all student work areas. Stand in different parts of the room to check for blind spots.

• Make often-used teaching materials and student supplies easily accessible. This minimizes preparation and cleanup time, as well as slowdowns and breaks in activity flow.

• Make sure that students can easily observe whole-class presentations. Establish where you and your students will be located when whole-class presentations take place. For these activities, students should not have to move their chairs or stretch their necks. To find out how well your students can see from their locations, sit in their seats in different parts of the room.

Arrangement Style

• In thinking about how you will organize the classroom's physical space, you should ask yourself what type of instructional activity students will mainly be engaged in (whole-class, small-group, individual assignments, and so on). Consider the physical arrangements that will best support that type of activity (Weinstein, 2007).

Standard Classroom Arrangements

• shows five categories of classroom arrangement styles: auditorium, face-to-face, offset, seminar, and cluster (Renne, 1997)

• This arrangement inhibits face-to-face student contacts, and the teacher is free to move anywhere in the room.

• Auditorium style often is used when the teacher lectures or someone is making a presentation to the entire class.

• face-to-face style; students sit facing each other. Distraction from other students is higher in this arrangement than in the auditorium style

• Offset style; small numbers of students (usually three or four) sit at tables but do not sit directly across from one another. This produces less distraction than face-to-face style and can be effective for cooperative learning activities

• Seminar Style; larger numbers of students (ten or more) sit in circular, square, or U-shaped arrangements. This is especially effective when you want students to talk with each other or to converse with you

• Cluster style; small numbers of students (usually four to eight) work in small, closely bunched groups. This arrangement is especially effective for collaborative learning activities

Personalizing the Classroom

• According to classroom management experts Carol Weinstein and Andrew Mignano (2007), classrooms too often resemble motel rooms-pleasant but impersonal, revealing nothing about the people who use the space.

  Such anonymity is especially true of secondary school classrooms, where six or seven different classes might use the space in a single day. To personalize classrooms, post students' photographs, artwork, written projects, charts that list birthdays (of early childhood and elementary school students), and other positive expressions of students' identities. A bulletin board can be set aside for the "student of the week" or be used to display each student's best work of the week, personally chosen by each student.

• None of the classrooms we have described will exactly match yours. However, keeping in mind the basic principles we have described should help you create an optimal classroom arrangement for learning.

General Strategies

• The authoritative classroom management style is derived from Diana Baumrind's (1971, 1996) parenting styles

• Like authoritative parents, authoritative teachers have students who tend to be self-reliant, delay gratification, get along well with their peers, and show high self-esteem.

• An authoritative strategy of classroom management encourages students to be independent thinkers and doers but still involves effective monitoring.

• Authoritative teachers engage students in considerable verbal give-and-take and show a caring attitude toward them.

• Authoritative teachers clarify rules and regulations, establishing these standards with input from students.

• The authoritative style contrasts with two ineffective strategies: authoritarian and permissive;

1. The authoritarian classroom management sty. le is restrictive and punitive. The focus is mainly on keeping order in the classroom rather than on instruction and learning. Authoritarian teachers place firm limits and controls on students and have little verbal exchange with them. Students in authoritarian classrooms tend to be passive learners, fail to initiate activities, express anxiety about social comparison, and have poor communication skills.

2. The permissive classroom managemen t style offers students considerable autonomy but provides them with little support for developing learning skills or managing their behavior. Not surprisingly, students in permissive classrooms tend to have inadequate academic skills and low self-control.

• Overall, an authoritative style will benefit your students more than authoritarian or permissive styles. An authoritative style will help your students become active, self-regulated learners.

Creating, Teaching, and Maintaining Rules and Procedures

• To function smoothly, classrooms need clearly defined rules and procedures. Students need to know specifically how you want them to behave.

• Rules focus on general or specific expectations or standards for behavior.

• Procedures, or routines, also communicate expectations about behavior, but they usually are applied to a specific activity, and their aim is to accomplish something rather than to prohibit a behavior or define a general standard

• Rules tend not to change because they address fundamental ways we deal with others, ourselves, and our work, such as having respect for others and their property, and keeping our hands and our feet to ourselves. On the other hand, procedures may change because routines and activities in classrooms change.

• What is the best way to get students to learn about rules and procedures?

  Should the teacher make the rules and procedures, then inform the class about them? Should students be allowed to participate in generating rules and procedures?

• Student involvement can take many different forms, including a discussion of the reason for having rules and the meaning of particular rules.

• Most teachers prefer to create and present their rules, although as indicated earlier, they may encourage discussion of the rules. In secondary schools, especially high schools, greater student contribution to rule setting is possible because of their more-advanced cognitive and socioemotional knowledge and skills.

• Many effective classroom teachers clearly present their rules to students and give explanations and examples of them. Teachers who set reasonable rules, provide understandable rationales for them, and enforce them consistently usually find that the majority of the class will abide by them.

Getting Students to Cooperate

Develop a Positive with Students

• One study found that in addition to having effective rules and procedures, successful classroom managers also showed a caring attitude toward students

• This caring was evidenced in part by a classroom environment in which students felt safe and secure and were treated fairly. The teachers were sensitive to their needs and anxieties (e.g., they created enjoyable activities the first several days of the school year rather than giving them diagnostic tests) and had good communication skills (including listening skills), and they effectively expressed their feelings to students. The classroom atmosphere was relaxed and pleasant.

Get Students to Share and Assume Responsibility

• Earlier in this chapter, we discussed the importance of developing an authoritative atmosphere in the classroom and the issue of whether students should be allowed to participate in establishing class rules. Some experts on classroom management argue that sharing responsibility with students for making classroom decisions increases the students commitment to the decisions (Blumenfeld et al., 2006).

• You and your students will benefit considerably if you have effective speaking skills and you work with your students on developing their speaking skills. Let's first explore some strategies for speaking with your class.

Speaking with the Class and Students

• Selecting vocabulary that is understandable and appropriate for the level of your students

• Speaking at an appropriate pace, neither too rapidly nor too slowly

• Being precise in your communication and avoiding vagueness

• Using good planning and logical thinking skills as underpinnings of speaking clearly with your class

Barriers to Effective Verbal Communication

• Criticizing. Harsh, negative evaluations of another person generally reduce communication. An example of criticizing is telling a student,
  "It's your fault you flunked the test; you should have studied." Instead of criticizing, you can ask students to evaluate why they did not do well on a test and try to get them to arrive at an attribution that reflects lack of effort as the reason for the poor grade.

• Name-calling and labeling. These are ways of putting down the other person. Students engage in a lot of name-calling and labeling. They might say to another student, "You are a loser," or "You are stupid." Monitor students' use of such name-calling and labeling. When you hear this type of statement, intervene and talk with them about considering other students' feelings.

• Advising. Advising is talking down to others while giving them a solution to a problem. For example, a teacher might say, "That's so easy to solve. I can't understand why ...

• Ordering. Commanding another person to do what you want is often not effective because it creates resistance. For example, a teacher might yell at a student, "Clean up this space, right now!" Instead, a calm, firm reminder such as "Remember the rule of cleaning things up when we are finished" works better.

• Threatening. Threats are intended to control the other person by verbal force. For example, a teacher might say, "If you don't listen to me, I'm going to make your life miserable here." A better strategy is to approach the student more calmly and talk with the student about listening better.

• Moralizing. This means preaching to the other person about what he or she should do. For example, a teacher might say, "You know you should have turned your homework in on time. You ought to feel bad about this." Moralizing increases students' quilt and anxiety. A better strategy in this case is not to use words such as should and ought but, instead, to talk with the student in a less condemning way about why the homework was not turned in on time.

Giving an Effective Speech

• The following guidelines for delivering an effective speech can benefit students as well as teachers (Alverno College, 1995):

  • Connect with the audience. Talk directly to the audience; don't just read your notes or recite a memorized script.

  • State your purpose. Keep this focus throughout the talk.

  • Effectively deliver the speech. Use eye contact, supportive gestures, and effective voice control.

  • Use media effectivelv. This can help the audience grasp key ideas and varies the pace of the talk.

Listening Skills

• If you are a good listener, students, parents, other teachers, and administrators will be drawn to you.

• If your students are good listeners, they will benefit more from your instruction and will have better social relationships.

• Poor listeners "hog" conversations. They talk "to" rather than "with" someone. Good listeners actively listen.

• They don't just passively absorb information. Active listening means giving full attention to the speaker, focusing on both the intellectual and the emotional content of the message.

• Some good active listening strategies follow;

1. Pay careful attention to the person who is talking, including maintaining eye contact.

2. Paraphrase.

3. Synthesize themes and patterns.

4. Give specific feedback that describes the listener's feelings

Nonverbal Communication

• In addition to what you say, you also communicate by how you fold your arms, cast your eyes, move your mouth, cross your legs, or touch another person.

• Let's further explore nonverbal communication by examining facial expressions, personal space, and silence. People's faces disclose emotions and telegraph what really matters to them.

• Classroom management experts Carolyn Evertson and Edward Emmer distinguish between minor and moderate interventions for problem behaviors. Their approach is described in the following sections.

Minor Interventions

• When only minor interventions are needed for problem behaviors, these strategies can be effective (Evertson &

  Emmer, 2009, pp. 188-190):

  • "Use nonverbal cues. Make eye contact with the student and give a signal such as a finger to the lips, a head shake, or a hand signal to issue a desist."

  • Keep the activity moving. Sometimes transitions between activities take too long, or a break in activity occurs when students have nothing to do. In these situations, students might leave their seats, socialize, crack jokes, and begin to get out of control. A good strategy is not to correct students' minor misbehaviors in these situations but rather start the next activity in a more timely fashion. By effectively planning the day, you should be able to eliminate these long transitions and gaps in activity.

  • Move closer to students. When a student starts misbehaving, simply moving near the student will often cause the misbehavior to stop

  • Move closer to students. When a student starts misbehaving, simply moving near the student will often cause the misbehavior to stop.

  • "Redirect the behavior." If students get off-task, let them know what they are supposed to be doing. You might say, "Okay, remember, everybody is supposed to be working on math problems."
    . "Provide needed instruction." Sometimes students engage in minor misbehaviors when they haven't understood how to do the task they have been assigned. Unable to effectively do the activity, they fill the time by misbehaving. Solving this problem involves carefully monitoring students' work and providing guidance when needed.

  • Directly and assertively tell the student to stop. Establish direct eye contact with the student, be assertive, and tell the student to stop the behavior. "Keep your comments brief and monitor the situation until the student complies. Combine this strategy with redirection to encourage desirable behavior."

  • "Give the student a choice." Place responsibility in the student's hands by saying that he or she has a choice of either behaving appropriately or receiving a negative consequence. Be sure to tell the student what the appropriate behavior is and what the consequence is for not performing it.

Moderate Interventions

Here are some moderate interventions for dealing with these types of problems (Evertson & Emmer 2009, pp. 177-178):

• "Withhold a privilege or a desired activity." Inevitably, you will have students who abuse privileges they have been given, such as being able to move around the classroom or to work on a project with friends. In these cases, you can revoke the privilege.

• "Isolate or remove students." In the chapter on behavioral and social cognitive approaches we discussed the time-out, which involves removing a student from positive reinforcement. If you choose to use a time-out, you have several options. You can (1) keep the student in the classroom, but deny the student access to positive reinforcement;

• (2) take the student outside the activity area or out of the classroom; or (3) place the student in a time-out room designated by the school.

• If you use a time-out, be sure to clearly identify the student's behavior that resulted in the time-out, such as "You are being placed in timeout for 30 minutes because you punched Derrick." If the misbehavior occurs again, re-identify it and place the student in time-out again. After the time-out, don't comment on how well the student behaved during the time-out; just return the student to the activity that was interrupted.

• Impose a penalty. A small amount of repetitious work can be used as a penalty for misbehavior. In writing, a student might have to write an extra page; in math, a student might have to do extra problems; in physical education, a student might have to run an extra lap. The problem with penalties is that they can harm the student's attitude toward the subject matter.

Using Others as Resources

• Among the people who can help you get students to engage in more appropriate behavior are peers, parents, the principal or counselor, and mentors.

Peer Mediation

• Peers sometimes can be very effective at getting students to behave more appropriately. Peer mediators can be trained to help students resolve quarrels and change undesirable behaviors. For example, if two students have started to argue with each other, an assigned peer mediator can help to mediate the dispute, as described later in the chapter when we discuss conflict resolution.

Parent-Teacher Conference

• You can telephone the student's parents or confer with them in a face-to-face conference. Just informing them can sometimes get the student to improve behavior. Don't put the parents on the defensive or suggest that you are blaming them for their child's misbehavior in school. Just briefly describe the problem and say that you would appreciate any support that they can give you.

Enlist the Help of the Principle or Counselor

• Letting the principal or counselor handle the problem can save you time. However, such help is not always practical on a regular basis in many schools.

Find a Mentor

• A mentor can provide such students with the guidance they need to reduce problem behaviors

• a study indicated that the mentoring relationship was more likely to endure when youth initiated mentoring, such as when youth nominated mentors from the nomparental adults in their social network (such as teachers, family friends, extended family members) rather than when mentors were recommended by parents or program staff, and when mentors were of the same ethnic group as the youth

Dealing With Aggression

School Violence;

• fighting & bullying

• In elementary school, you can usually stop a fight without risking injury to yourself. If for some reason you cannot intervene, immediately get help from other teachers or administrators. When you intervene, give a loud verbal command: "Stop!" Separate the fighters, and as you keep them separated, tell other students to leave or return to what they are doing. If you intervene in a fight that involves secondary school students, you will probably need the help of one or two other adults. Your school likely will have a policy regarding fighting. If so, you should carry it out and involve the principal and/or parents if necessary.

• Generally, it is best to let the fighters have a cooling-off period so that they can calm down. Then meet with the fighters and get their points of view on what precipitated the fight. Question witnesses if necessary. Have a conference with the fighters, emphasizing the inappropriateness of fighting, the benefits of taking each other's perspective, and the value of cooperation.

• Boys are more likely to be bullies than girls, but gender differences regarding victims of bullies are

• Researchers have found that anxious, socially withdrawn, and aggressive children are often the victims of bullying

• Anxious and socially withdrawn children may be victimized because they are nonthreatening and unlikely to retaliate if bullied, whereas aggressive children may be the targets of bullying because their behavior is irritating to bullies. Overweight and obese children are often bullied

• A meta-analysis indicated that lack of positive parenting behavior (including having good communication, a warm relationship, being involved, and engaging in supervision of their children) and the presence of negative parenting behavior (including child maltreatment-physical abuse and neglect) was related to a greater likelihood of becoming either a bully or a victim at school

Defiance or Hostility Toward the Teacher

• Edmund Emmer and Carolyn Evertson (2022) discussed the following strategies for dealing with students who defy you or are hostile toward you.

  If students get away with this type of behavior, it likely will continue and even spread. Therefore, try to defuse the event by keeping it private and handling the student individually, if possible. If the defiance or hostility is not extreme and occurs during a lesson, try to depersonalize it and say that you will deal with it in a few minutes to avoid a power struggle. At an appropriate later time, meet with the student and spell out any consequence the misbehavior might merit.

• In extreme and rare cases, students will be completely uncooperative, in which case you should send another student to the office for help. In most instances, though, if you stay calm and don't get into a power struggle with the student, the student will calm down, and you can talk with the student about the problem.

Auditorium Style: A classroom arrangement style in which all students sit facing the teacher.

Authoritarian classroom management style: A management style that is restrictive and punitive, with the focus mainly on keeping order in the classroom rather than instruction or learning

authoritative classroom management style: A management style that encourages students to be independent thinkers and doers but still provides effective monitoring. Authoritative teachers engage students in considerable verbal give-and-take and show a caring attitude toward them. However, they still set limits when necessary.

bystander: Someone who witnesses bullying occur electronically or in person; bystanders can play different roles; intervening in bullying can cause it to stop in less than 10 second in over half of incidences.

cluster style: A classroom arrangement style in which small numbers of students (usually four to eight) work in small, closely bunched groups.

Face-to-face style: A classroom arrangement style in which students sit facing each other.

offset style: A classroom arrangement style in which small numbers of students (usually three or four) sit at tables but do not sit directly across from one another.

permissive classroom management style: A management style that allows students considerable autonomy but provides them with little support for developing learning skills or managing their behavior.

seminar style: A classroom arrangement style in which large numbers of students (ten or more) sit in circular, square, or U-shaped arrangements.

withitness: A management style described by Kounin in which teachers show students that they are aware of what is happening. Such teachers closely monitor students on a regular basis and detect inappropriate behavior early, before it gets out of hand.

• We have discussed rewards extensively in the chapter on behavioral and social cognitive approaches. You might want to read the discussion of rewards in that chapter again, especially the section "Applied Behavior Analysis in Education," and think about how rewards can be used in effectively managing the classroom

Choose Effective Reinforcers

• Find out which reinforcers work best with which students, and individualize reinforcement (Alberto et al., 2022). For one student, the most effective reward might be praise; for another, it might be getting to do a favorite activity. Remember that pleasurable activities often are especially valuable in gaining students' cooperation. You might tell a student, "When you complete your math problems, you can go to the media area and play a computer game."

Use Prompts and Shaping Effectively

• Remember that if vou wait for students to perform perfectly, they might never do so. A good strategy is to use prompts and shape students' behavior by rewarding improvement (Alberto et al., 2022). Some prompts come in the form of hints or reminders, such as "Remember the rule about lining up." Shaping behavior involves rewarding a student for successive approximations to a specified target behavior. Thus, you might initially reward a student for getting 60 percent of her math problems right, then for 70 percent the next time, and so on.

Use Rewards to Provide Information about Mastery, Not to Control Students'

• Rewards that impart information about students' mastery can increase their intrinsic motivation and sense of responsibility (Vargas, 2009).

  However, rewards that are used to control students' behavior are less likely to promote self-regulation and responsibility. For example, a student's learning might benefit from being selected as student of the week because he or she engaged in a number of highly productive, competent activities.

  However, the student likely will not benefit from being given a reward for sitting still at a desk; such a reward is an effort by the teacher to control the student, and students in heavily controlled learning environments tend to act like "pawns."

Classroom Mangement and Diversity

• Restorative justice is rooted in indigenous practices that center the importance of community and that when wrongdoings occur, true justice is achieved when the harm and relationships are repaired.

• The purpose of using restorative justice in schools is to improve class and school climate, thus decreasing disciplinary infractions such as class disruptions and expulsions.

• Restorative practices focus on proactively developing healthy relationships within the school community, as well as repairing harm when it occurs between three key stakeholders: the victims, the offenders, and their communities. These practices can range from informal to formal and can include strategies such as restorative circles, peace circles, peer mediation, and social-emotional learning

• A study found that teachers who implemented more restorative practices had more positive relationships with their diverse students

• Research evidence suggests that restorative justice programs can improve school climates and reduce student misbehavior and school discipline

• A number of scholars argue that miscommunication between teachers and students and teachers lack of sensitivity to cultural and socioeconomic variations in students contribute to this disproportionate number of referrals

• Cultural mismatches especially are likely to appear in schools where the teachers are overwhelmingly from non Latinx White, middle-income backgrounds and the majority of the students are children of color from low income backgrounds.

• Engaging in culturally responsive teaching and demonstrating sensitivity to cultural and socioeconomic variations in students can help teachers to reduce discipline problems in their classroom

• An increasing number of programs reveal that showing greater cultural sensitivity to socioculturally diverse students benefits those who are placed at risk for academic and emotional problems

• conceptualization of culturally responsive classroom management that includes five essential components: teacher's (a) recognition of one's own ethnocentrism; (b) knowledge of students' cultural backgrounds; (c) understanding of the broader social, economic, and political context; (d) ability and willingness to use culturally appropriate management strategies; and (e) commitment to building caring classrooms