The Hindus themselves use the term Sanatana Dharma to describe their religion. It means “the everlasting Law.” This word Dharma, which refers to a person’s proper station in life, is one of the key concepts of Hinduism.

According to the standard Western reconstruction of India’s history, one group of Indo-European-speaking people travelled even farther from the original homeland. They travelled South and East to an area near the Caspian Sea, where they settled for an unknown amount of time before resuming their migration southward and eastward. One branch of this group moved into what is now India around the middle of the second millennium B.C., while another branch settled in what is now Iran. Both branches called themselves the Aryans, meaning “the noble people.” The Indo-Aryans were warriors and nomads. The invading Indo-Aryans brought with them the religious beliefs and practices described in the Vedas.

 Vedic religion incorporated some elements of the indigenous religious beliefs as it developed in India, but its core was of foreign origin. Indo-Aryans, as with other great civilizations, this one grew up along a river that served both as a water source and as a major artery of transport. In this case, the river was the Indus, so this culture is generally called the Indus Valley Civilization. For reasons not fully understood, this civilization went into decline. 

We cannot say for certain to what degree the Indus Valley Civilization contributed to the development of Hinduism. As with other aspects of that culture, we can only try to reconstruct their religion on the basis of rather scant evidence. The most common artifacts of the Indus Valley Civilization are clay and soapstone seals. One intriguing figure appears on several of the seals. This figure wears a trident-shaped headdress, sits in a yogic posture, and is surrounded by animals. Some scholars believe this figure may be a prototype for the later popular Hindu god Shiva. 

1.Shiva is the Hindu God of Creation. 
2.Shiva is associated with rebirth and transformation.
3. People In India don't worship different gods.
4. Hindus believe that God and Goddess are the same expressions of one God.
5.Moksha is an important God.
6. Indians strongly believe that the divine is in the river taking fish forms.

The first stream of Hinduism is the way of work, which emphasizes performing proper rituals and doing one’s duty in society. The second stream is the way of knowledge, the path of the mystic who seeks unity with the eternal. The third and most popular stream is the way of devotion, the path of those who put their faith in a personal god.

The fact that different people worship different gods is taken for granted. Hindus believe that all the gods and goddesses are really different expressions of one God and, that any form of Hinduism, if practiced sincerely, will bring about release from this world of pain and suffering. This release is called moksha.

Unlike the God worshiped in faiths such as Islam and Christianity, none of the Hindu gods has declared, “Thou shalt have no other gods before me.” The people of India are very comfortable with the idea that the divine is all around us, taking many different forms and answering to many different names.

1-Hindus believe that after death, human beings are reborn into different bodies over and over again. This process is called...
a)rebirth b) reincarnation 
c)connection
2-Karma is the cycle of ………
a)action    b) action and reaction    c) reaction
3- Multiple arms and faces in Hindu images symbolize………
a)the deity´s power  
b) the deity´s wisdom         
c) the deity´s purity

4-A temple is designed to reflect…….
a)the power of a god          
 b) the deity glory          
c)the entire universe

5-During the  ceremony of Puja people….
a)pray    
 b) pray and offer fruits, flowers and insience to the deity   
c) sing

A temple is designed to reflect the entire universe. Its floor plan is a symbolic, miniature representation of the cosmos. The floor plan is a grid of squares and equilateral triangles. The square is a mystical form in Hinduism. The grid, which is in fact a mandala, a model of the cosmos, typically contains 64 or 81 squares, with each square belonging to a deity. The square in the center represents the deity to whom the temple is dedicated. 

The entrance to the main shrine should face east, toward the rising sun. Worshipers begin at the entryway and move through a series of increasingly sacred spaces, until they reach the garbhagriha (literally, “womb chamber”), which is the “holy of holies” of a Hindu temple. The tower or spire of a Hindu temple is erected directly above the garbhagriha. 

Temples are generally placed near shade and water, since the Puranas state that “The gods always play where groves are near rivers, mountains and springs.” The gods like mountains as well, so temples have soaring towers that look like mountains. At one time, temples were painted white to make them look even more like snow-covered mountains. In Hindu temples, the garbhagriha is designed to resemble a cave. It is small and dark. Even though numerous sculptures dance across the external walls of temples, the massive walls of the garbhagriha are unadorned. The visitor moves from the bright light of day outside the temple to the darkness of the inner sanctuary, from a profusion of visual forms on the external walls to the visual simplicity of the garbhagriha.

During the series “The Story of God”, Morgan Freeman and Binda Paranjape, a historian, explained that there is no set schedule for visits to a temple. Worshippers go when they want. When entering a temple, visitors must take off their shoes and women cover their heads to show respect. The ceremony that follows is called Puja. It includes prayer and a viewing of the statue of the god or goddess honored. Offerings of fruits, flowers and incense are made to a priest who presents them to the deity. After the deity blesses the gifts they are returned to the worshipper and their heads are marked with a red dot or blessing called a tilaka. Worshippers then circle the inner shrine with their right hand raised in respect to the deity.

It is also very common for Hindus to worship at a home shrine, often as a whole family. There might be a statue or just a picture of the god or goddess. The shrine also contains things which represent the five senses. The idea is to draw the whole person into worship through the image or statue and the senses. The goal is to get beyond self to Brahmin. A bell is also often rung to help focus the mind.

The Ganges River is a very sacred place to Hindus. It is a place to go on pilgrimage to bathe in sacred waters. Hindus also like to have their ashes scattered in the Ganges after cremation. 

Gods and goddesses are everywhere in India. For example, Krishna is blue in color, is typically portrayed as a youth, and often plays a flute.  Vishnu may have a seven-headed serpent overshadowing him. Shiva is shown holding a trident, and he may be standing by a bull. The Goddess, Shiva´s wife, is readily recognizable standing by her lion. Many Hindu images have multiple arms or faces. Multiple arms symbolize the deity’s powers. These images make the gods of Hinduism seem more present and real.

1- What is the Caste System? How is it organized?

2- Who are the Untouchables? Which are their roles in Hindu´s society?

3-Why Indian people can't change their individual position in society?

The Caste System divides Hindus into four main categories - Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and the Shudras. Many believe that the groups originated from Brahma, the Hindu God of creation.

At the top of the hierarchy were the Brahmins who were mainly teachers and intellectuals and are believed to have come from Brahma's head. Then came the Kshatriyas, or the warriors and rulers, supposedly from his arms. The third slot went to the Vaishyas, or the traders, who were created from his thighs. At the bottom of the heap were the Shudras, who came from Brahma's feet and did all the menial jobs.

Outside of this Hindu caste system were the achhoots - the Dalits or the untouchables.

In an article titled “Who are the Dalits?”, Kallie Szczepanski explained that India's Untouchables performed spiritually contaminating work that nobody else wanted to do, such as preparing bodies for funerals, tanning hides, and killing rats or other pests. Doing anything with dead cattle or cow hides was particularly unclean in Hinduism. Under both Hindu and Buddhist beliefs, jobs that involved death corrupted the workers' souls, making them unfit to mingle with other people.

Even people who had no choice in the matter (those born to parents who were both Dalits) were not allowed to be touched by those of higher classes nor ascend the ranks of society. Because of their uncleanliness in the eyes of Hindu  gods, they were banned from many places and activities, as ordained by their past lives.

An Untouchable couldn't enter a Hindu temple or be taught to read. They were banned from drawing water from village wells because their touch would taint the water for everyone else. They had to live outside village boundaries and could not walk through the neighborhoods of higher caste members. If a Brahmin or Kshatriya approached, an Untouchable was expected to throw himself or herself face down on the ground to prevent even their unclean shadows from touching the higher caste.

Indians believed that people were born as Untouchables as punishment for misbehavior in previous lives. An Untouchable could not ascend to a higher caste within that lifetime; Untouchables had to marry fellow Untouchables and could not eat in the same room or drink from the same well as a caste member. In Hindu reincarnation theories, however, those who scrupulously followed these restrictions could be rewarded for their behavior by a promotion to a higher caste in their next life.

Professor Robison added that Jati, usually translated as “caste,” is the vehicle by which one fulfills Dharma. Caste is defined by sociologists as “an endogamous occupational category determined by birth,” which means one is born into a specific caste, one marries in that caste, one performs the duties associated with that caste, and one dies in the same caste into which one was born. Each jati has its own characteristic occupations, and its own religious and social practices. In traditional villages, each caste is governed by its own caste council. There are different duties for each jati. The Bhagavad Gita says: “Better do your own work imperfectly than do another’s well.” It was considered a horrendous sin to do another task, because that implied taking someone else’s job away from him. In the caste system, everyone was assured a place in society; no one had to compete for a job. The flip side of the coin, of course, was that one couldn’t compete to move up in the caste system. Even today, the relations among castes are governed by deeply ingrained custom, not by supply and demand.

The basic metaphor underlying the caste system is one that likens society to the human body. As in the body, so too in society, each part must fulfill its own proper function if the whole is to prosper. The prosperity of the whole entails the prosperity of the parts. If a part does not perform its function, then the whole is weakened, and this is to the ultimate detriment of the parts. The metaphor of the “social body” was common in pre-modern Western social thought as well. In this vision of society, everyone is important, but people are not all equal. There are different parts with different functions. Some parts are considered superior to others.

However, even the lowliest part has great value in its proper place, because it is necessary for the functioning of the body. Everyone should remain in his or her place, but there is a place for everyone.

Just as our body has eyes, ears, arms, and legs, all different, yet each with its own necessary function, so society has many different types of people. We do not think of our bodily parts as equal: the eyes, the brain, or heart are much more prestigious organs than, for example, liver or spleen and certainly more than the feet. But “lower” parts are just as necessary as “higher” ones, and a malfunction in liver or spleen can lead to dire consequences. The goal is for the higher and the lower to harmoniously coexist and mutually benefit each other.

Relations among castes are governed by a network of mutual obligations and benefits, so that each caste contributes to the welfare of every other caste in a very real sense, even though each caste is socially distinct. Caste is determined by karma. The specific caste of an individual is determined by his or her deeds in previous lives. Furthermore, how one acts in this life determines the characteristics of one’s next incarnation. A belief in karma is critical to a belief in the fairness of the Caste System, though one may certainly believe in karma and reincarnation without being committed to traditional Indian social structure.

Moksha - Brahman - Samhitas - Apaurusheya - Upanishads - Smriti - Shruti 
1-Only the Vedas are called …………….
2- Non- Vedic sacred literature is called ……………
3-The Vedas are considered to be ……………
4- Some Hindus refer to divine as …………..
5-The …………. are the original collection of hymns, songs and  poetry that explain how to carry out Vedic ceremonies.
6-The ………….. are the teachings of the great Hindu masters which show the path toward 7-…………..  

Robinson stated that Hindus believe that the rishis saw the truths that are contained in the Vedas; they did not invent or create them out of their own minds. For that reason, the Vedas are considered to be apaurusheya (impersonal, entirely superhuman). They are a revelation.

The Vedas are believed to be eternal, without beginning or end. They are not simply written texts. Hindus believe that they came out of the breath of God and are filled with eternal spiritual truths, or divine knowledge, which can never be destroyed. This seems to be a similar concept to that of biblical inspiration, which claims that the scriptures are “God-breathed.”

Not all Hindus would say that the Vedas are “God-breathed,” though many would, for most Hindus believe in a personal God. However, some Hindus refer to the divine as Brahman, a term for ultimate reality thought of as that which is beyond all designations of physical or personal attributes, and therefore impersonal. It is important to recognize that here impersonal means “not limited by personality,” and therefore greater, not less, than something that is personal.

There are actually four collections of Vedic poetry—the Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda. Each Vedic collection has four subdivisions: the Samhitas, which is the original collection of hymns, songs, or poetry; the “ritual texts,” which explain how to carry out Vedic ceremonies; the “forest treatises,” which are supposedly the spiritual writings of “forest dwellers”—hermits who have renounced the world; and last and probably most important for modern Hinduism, the Upanishads, which are the teachings of the great Hindu masters and show the path toward moksha (liberation from reincarnation).

Diwali is the festival of lights. Light represents knowledge. It is celebrated in late October or early November. This is the Hindu New Year.

Holi is the festival which marks the coming of spring. It is held in March or April. There are processions and people light bonfires and cover each other with colored water and powders.

Dussehra is the festival which marks Rama's triumph over the evil Ravana. It is held in September. There are dances and plays with events in the life of the god Rama depicted.

Hindu holidays often correspond to significant events in nature, events that are reflected in the Hindu calendar. The Hindu calendar is based on the cycle of the moon. The lunar month begins with the new moon and continues through the day of the full moon to the appearance of the next new moon, which begins a new month.

Diwali is defined by the book “Religions of the World- Hinduism” by Rosinson as the single most important Hindu holiday, occurring at the end of the month of Ashwin. Diwali is also one of the most widely celebrated of Indian festivals. It is celebrated throughout India, and in many other countries. Diwali, the “festival of lights,” commemorates Lakshmi, goddess of wealth, as well as the return of Rama and Sita from exile. Rama’s return to the throne symbolizes the victory of good over evil. People place lighted lamps in every window of their homes to light the way for Rama and Sita’s return. Decorative designs called rangolis are painted on floors and walls. Relatives and friends gather to offer prayers and distribute sweets. Children set off firecrackers, which contribute to the theme of the victory of good over evil by symbolically reducing the latter to ashes. Diwali is also dedicated to Lakshmi, goddess of wealth and good fortune. Merchants and businesspeople renovate and decorate their establishments. Women may purchase something made of gold or silver. In the villages, cattle are adorned, because cattle symbolize wealth in rural areas. Hindus believe that Lakshmi walks through the fields and along the roads during Diwali, showering her blessings of plenty and prosperity everywhere. The joyous sounds of bells and drums float out from the temples. Inside, Vedic hymns are chanted. The worshiper expects to see the impenetrable darkness pierced by a blaze of light descending from heaven as golden footed Lakshmi alights on earth in all her celestial glory.