Advantages: can be used to print many different papers like posters, flyers, business cards etc.

Produces fast results.

Lower build costs.

Disadvantages: only prints 25 to a thousand copies, so if you need more this could not be the best method to use.

The result of balance out printing can contain more saturated and richer hues.

Skills & Knowledge Required: how to use the machine.

Cost: £84 for machine

Speed: produces fast results

Technical Considerations: being able to use the machine

Uses Through History: the oldest and most time consuming method of textile printing is woodblock printing. Other techniques were developed during the Renaissance and through the Industrial Revolution. Screen printing came into vogue about the 1950s.

Advantages: provides an individual or business the means to produce quality material inexpensively.

It is frame based, text and graphics can be laid out on the page and resized as necessary.

Control over publications.

Quick production.

Customisable.

Disadvantages: increased expenses for computer, laser printer and software.

Skills & Knowledge Required: how to use the programme

Cost: £109.99

Speed: depending on the material you're creating and how well you know the software, it can take from minutes to hours to days.

Technical Considerations: is it suitable for the product you're making?

Uses Through History: desktop publishing began in 1983 with a program developed by James Bessen at a community newspaper in Philadelphia. That program ran on a PC using a graphics card and was offered commercially by Best info in 1984. The DTP market exploded in 1985 with the introduction of the Apple LaserWriter printer, and later in July with the introduction of PageMaker software from Aldus which became the industry DTP standard software. The term 'desktop publishing' is attributed to Aldus Corporation founder Paul Brainerd, who sought a marketing catch phrase to describe the small size and relative affordability of this suite of products in contrast to the expensive commercial phototypesetting equipment of the day.

Advantages: quieter in operation

can print finer, smoother details

no warm up time

lower cost per page

high speed printing

high quality photos

Disadvantages: expensive ink

cartridges often get clogged

you can't use all types of paper with inkjet printers, with the wrong type of paper the ink

can smear

Skills & Knowledge Required: how to use the printer, what paper to use, how to unclog cartridges

Cost: from £10 to £874

Speed: up to 30 pages a minute

Technical Considerations: quality of copy, colour or black and white, size of paper that can be used, size of machine etc.

Uses Through History: the concept of inkjet printing originated in the 19th century, and the technology was first extensively developed in the early 50s. Starting in the late 70s inkjet printers that could reproduce digital images generated by computers were developed, mainly by Epsen, HP and Canon.

Advantages: more efficient, they can produce several thousand prints from one toner cartridge.

Produces a high quality print very quickly and quietly.

Efficient for home and small business use.

Disadvantages: very expensive.

Can produce images that look shiny and artificial, they are more suited to printing text than graphics.

Can't perform multiple printing functions.

Use a larger amount of electricity to run.

Skills & Knowledge Required: how to work the machine.

Cost: laser printers range from £10-£24,000.

Speed: up to 20 pages a minute

Technical Considerations: quality of copy, colour or black and white, size of paper that can be used, size of machine etc.

Uses Through History: in the 1960s, the American Xerox Corporation held a dominant position in the copier market. In 1969, Gary Starkweather, who worked at Xerox in product development, had the idea of using a laser to draw an image directly onto the copier drum. The first commercial implementation of a laser printer was the IBM 3800 in 1976. Over 8,000 were sold. Over the years more laser printers were made and sold. Laser printers bought fast, high quality text printing with multiple fonts on a page to the business and consumer markets. No other commonly available printer could offer this combination of features.

Advantages: the ability to make cheap and quick copies of almost anything you want, you can reproduce a document as many times as you wish with ease.

They offer security and privacy to the user.

Disadvantages: there are often differences in the quality of the original and the copy, noticeable in the sharpness of the detail. Text and images may be blurred, making a copy hard to see and read.

Some copiers have secret hard drives that keep everything that's ever been copied on that machine, which is a massive security risk if the files you are copying are confidential.

Many machines are quite large and occupy a lot of room.

Ink cartridges can be expensive and can have to be changed quite often.

Skills & Knowledge Required: how to use a photocopier machine.

Cost: some photocopiers can cost as little as £20, depending on the quality you want the copies to be, obviously the more expensive the machine the better quality the copy will be, some machines can cost up to £24,000.

Speed: photocopiers are extremely fast and can make hundreds of copies in minutes.

Technical Considerations: quality of copy, colour or black and white, size of paper that can be used, size of machine etc.

Uses Through History: Chester Carlson, the inventor of photocopying, was originally a patent attorney, as well as a part time researcher and inventor. His job required him to make a large number of copies of important papers. With his arthritis this proved to be a struggle, this motivated him to conduct experiments with photo conductivity. He made the first photocopy using a zinc plate covered with sulfur. Words were written on a microscope slide, which was placed on top of more sulfur and under a bright light. After the slide was removed, a mirror image of the words remained. Carlson presented his invention to several companies but was turned down because the process was still underdeveloped. Between 1939 and 1944, Carlson was turned down by over 20 companies. In 1944 the Battelle Memorial Institute contracted with Carlson to refine his new process. In 1947 Haloid Corporation approached Battelle to obtain a license to develop and market a copying machine based on this new technology. Through the years there have been several different interpretations and developments of this technology that has now become the photocopiers we use everyday.

A wooden or aluminium frame with a fine nylon mesh stretched over it. The mesh is coated with a fine emulsion or film which, when dry, will block the holes in the mesh. The image that needs to be printed is output to film either by camera or image-setter. This film positive and the mesh on the screen are sandwiched together and exposed to ultra violet light. The screen is then washed with a jet water that washes away all the light sensitive emulsion that has been hardened by the uv light. This gives you a clear stencil that corresponds exactly to the image. Now the screen is fitted on the press, the substrate to be printed is placed in position under the screen and ink is placed on the top side of the screen. A squeegee is pulled across the screen, pushing the ink through the mesh onto the surface of the substrate you are printing.

Advantages: a wide range of inks and dyes available

heavy coat weight of ink perfect for line drawn illustrations and text

resistant to fading due to sunlight exposure

Disadvantages: not suitable for very fine details

not suitable for building up layers of colour

Skills & Knowledge Required: ability to design patterns, mixing and loading ink, preparing stencils, cleaning machines etc.

Cost: the mesh and frame are fairly cheap however depending on how many colours you would want to use the ink could be more expensive.

Speed: preparing the design and doing the print doesn't take too long however waiting for everything to dry takes a good couple of hours.

Technical Considerations: what inks to use, this process is not suitable for layering colours so planning out your design before choosing this process is important.

Uses Through History: silk screen printing has it's origins in Japanese stencilling, but the screen process printing we know today stems from the patents taken out by Samuel Simon at the turn of the century. He used silk stretched on frames to support hand painted stencils. In 1914 John Pilsworth also took out a patent for multicolour printing, using the screen process. During the First World War in America screen printing took off as an industrial printing method, it was mainly used for flags and banners, but also for advertising in the chain stores in America, which were appearing around that time. Around this time the invention of the photographic stencil revolutionised the process; in following years very little changed since then.

Advantages: ability to print on thin film such as polyester, OPP, nylon, and PE, which come in a wide range of thicknesses.

Printing cylinders can last through large-volume runs without the image degrading.

Good quality image reproduction.

Low per-unit costs running high volume production.

Disadvantages: high start-up costs: hundreds and thousands of copies needed to make it profitable

Rasterised texts and lines.

Use of chemicals in the ink

Skills & Knowledge Required: knowledge of materials, required pressure, temperature, ink etc.

Cost: high-start up costs, low per-unit costs if running high volume production.

Speed: gravure presses operate at high speed.

Technical Considerations: what cylinder to use, sleeve or shaft: a sleeve cylinder requires a shaft to be attached when it is mounted on the press. The inaccuracies in the fitting of a separate shaft have brought about the development of a shaft cylinder, with a shaft already mounted on.

Uses Through History: in the last quarter of the 19th century, the method of photo image transfer onto carbon tissue covered with light sensitive gelatin was discovered, and was the beginning of gravure printing. In the 1930s-1960s, newspapers published relatively few photographs and instead newspapers publish separate gravure sections in their Sunday editions. These sections were devoted to photographs and identifying captions, not news stories. In 1932, it was found that these sections were the most widely read sections of the paper.

Advantages: it's a straightforward process that once you've made got your own letterpress, mass-printing on your own requires little effort, especially if you limit the amount of colours you use in your work.

Letterpress printers create crisp, clean lines and hold images; also, prints are printed with high-pigment-level ink, making the images and typography sharp.

Since letterpress printers print on top of the paper instead of feeding it through a tight space for printing, you can use letterpress printing with virtually any paper.

Disadvantages: colour can be applied in letterpress printing, but each colour has to dry before the next colour is applied from a different set of letters on the press.

Photographs and drawings must be converted to photo engravings, a slow and expensive process turning images into metal dots and lines.

Skills & Knowledge Required: knowledge of the equipment and how it works, knowledge of art and design and the ability to create a design to press.

Cost: machines can cost anything from £595.

Speed: the process is very slow as if you are using a hand-crafted letterpress, each letter of type is placed into a holder called a composing stick. Because the printed image is a mirror image, the type has to be set left to right and upside down. Once on the press, ink rollers only touch the top surface of the raised area. The surrounding, non-printing areas are lower and do not receive ink.

Technical Considerations: which ink to use: many letterpress printers struggle with getting good results with metallic inks, using light ink on dark paper can also become quite a struggle as you may have to print the ink a few times in perfect register to obtain enough ink density to cover the dark coloured paper. If too much ink is used on the press the images will show bad quality and drying characteristics, only a small amount of ink is needed to ink up a letterpress.

Uses Through History: letterpress printing was the normal type of printing text from its invention by Johannes Gutenberg in the mid-15th century until the 19th century and remained in wide use for books and other uses until the second half of the 20th century. Letterpress printing remained the primary way to print and distribute information until the 20th century, when offset printing was developed.

Advantages: offset lithography creates clear, smooth, sharp images and text on a variety of materials.

Lithography was initially invented to provide a cheaper alternative to copperplate engraving,

Can be used for a wide range of different products to a wide range of different people.

Disadvantages: from its early days, it was plagued with imprecision in lining up images and the bleeding or smearing of ink.

Skills & Knowledge Required: complex problem solving 

critical thinking

knowledge of the required technology

knowledge of design techniques and tools

Cost: much of the cost of printing with lithography comes from set-up costs, and printing requires little maintenance. Lithography isn't cheaper for small projects, however it is the cheapest, most cost effective method for producing commercial quantities.

Speed: many sheet-fed lithographic presses print simultaneously on both sides of the paper, which decreases printing times. Some web press lithographic machines can print as many as 50,000 sheets per hour.

Technical Considerations: using compatible printing ink and water mixture to adhere to the positive image and clean the negative image.

Uses Through History: invented by German actor and playwright Alois Senefelder in 1798. The technique developed rapidly and spread throughout Europe. It lies at the heart of the modern printing industry but has continued to be used as an artistic medium throughout its history. In 1817 it became possible to print from a zinc plate and from there colour lithography and four-colour printing using a raster developed. By the end of the century offset printing had been invented.

Advantages: cheap production cost 

fast compared to other printing methods

only one block is needed, and the components of an intricate design will line up perfectly

Disadvantages: once the artist moves onto the next layer, no more prints can be made

Skills & Knowledge Required: knowledge of different woodcut methods

knowledge of art and design

understanding of different materials

Cost: wood, printing ink and a substrate are all that's needed, as well as appropriate tools, which are all reasonably cheap.

Speed: carving a woodblock can take anything from several hours to several days

Technical Considerations: which method to use, e.g. 

Stamping: printed by putting the paper/fabric on a table or flat surface with the block on top, and pressing hard or hammering the top of the block.

Rubbing: the block goes face up on a table, with the paper or fabric on top. The back is rubbed with a hard pad, a flat piece of wood, a burnisher, or a leather frotton.

Uses Through History: woodcut is the earliest printmaking technique, and the only one traditionally used in the Far East.It was first developed as a means of printing patterns on cloth, and by the 5th century was used in China for printing texts and images on paper. Woodcuts of images on paper developed around 1400 in Europe, and slightly later in Japan. These are the two areas where woodcut has been used most extensively used purely as a process for making images without text.

Screen printing is also a stencil method in which a design is imposed on a screen of silk or other fine mesh, with blank areas coated with an impermeable substance, and ink is forced through the mesh onto the printing surface.

Advantages: a single image can be scaled upwards or downwards as needed. 

A method that can accommodate a wide range of different materials. 

This means printers can produce t shirts, promotional banners, hats etc. from the same screens.

Disadvantages: the ink must be pushed through the screens, this means that it is difficult to mix colours in an accurate way.

Small problems during the printing of any single screen could create an issue that offsets or distorts the completed image.

The limitations of screens as well as the techniques used to apply the ink to the fabric make it difficult to create small intricate details.

Skills & Knowledge Required: knowledge of different screen printing methods

ability to make up inks and colours

knowledge of art and design

understanding of different materials

knowledge of how the final screen printed product will be used

knowledge of the print screening industry and machinery

skills in the technical and practical aspects of screen printing

Cost: screen printing equipment costs £2,850

Speed: stencil screen printing can be done in as little as 20 minutes.

Technical Considerations: mesh count

wire diameter

% open area

thickness of the mesh

index strength

Uses Through History: screen printing first appeared in China during the Song Dynasty (960-1279 AD). It was then adapted by other Asian countries like Japan, and was furthered by creating newer methods Screen printing was introduced to Western Europe in the late 18th century, but did not gain large acceptance or use until silk mesh was more available for trade from the East. Roy Beck, Charles Peter and Edward Owens studied and experimented with chromic acid salt sensitised emulsions for photo-reactive stencils. These three people would prove to revolutionise the commercial screen printing industry by introducing photo-imaged stencils to the industry.

Advantages: the material being carved is easier to obtain certain artistic effects with linoleum than most woods as it doesn't split and has no directional gain.

Linoleum is generally easier to cut than wood, especially when heated.

Disadvantages: the resultant prints can lack the angular grainy character of woodcuts and engravings.

The pressure of the printing process degrades the linoleum plate faster than the wood, making it difficult to create larger works due to the material's fragility.

Skills & Knowledge Required: critical thinking- using logic and reasoning to identify the strengths and weaknesses of alternative solutions, conclusions or approaches to problems.

Knowledge of raw materials, production processes, quality controls, costs, etc.

Knowledge of principles and processes for providing customer and personal services.

Cost: linoleum is cheap, other materials are also cheap- everyday items from your house could be used e.g. wooden spoon, paper, roller etc.

Speed: not very lengthy process besides when they have to spend a few days drying.

Technical Considerations: using a softer block of linoleum gives rounder edges, it also reduces the number of prints you can pull before the block starts to deteriorate. The harder linoleum allows more detail, but they are more difficult to cut. They also hold up to a longer print run.

Uses Through History: the linocut technique was first used by the artists of Die Brucke in Germany between 1905-1913 where it had been similarly used for wallpaper printing. In the 1920s and 30s Claude Flight ran a linocut class at the Grosvenor School of Modern Art in England. Major artists such as Matisse and Picasso both worked with linoleum. Matisse executed over 70 linocuts between 1938 and 1952 in a fluent white-line technique. Picasso started to reuse linoleum in the late 50s and early 60s. Picasso's innovation continued with his use of the one-block process he devised for colour printing. This is known as the reduction or suicide method of printing.

Advantages: useful in various sections of the market so its open to a wide audience, it can also be used for almost anything the customer had a particular interest in.

Disadvantages: can be a slow and long process

material costs a substantial amount of money

Skills & Knowledge Required: critical thinking- using logic and reasoning to identify the strengths and weaknesses of alternative solutions, conclusions or approaches to problems.

Knowledge of raw materials, production processes, quality controls, costs, etc.

Knowledge of principles and processes for providing customer and personal services.

Cost: cylinders are very expensive (approx. £4k+) and set-up costs are also very expensive.

Speed: long process- need to concentrate and be concise, taking your time.

Technical Considerations: what inks you are using, water based inks usually end up blurring, oils don't.

Uses Through History: intaglio was first invented in Germany in the 1430s. The engraving aspect of intaglio was used by goldsmiths, primarily to decorate metal work, this would include armour, musical instruments and religious objects. It has been presumed that the development of intaglio was due to goldsmiths recording their designs and improve upon them.

Advantages: can open a lot of business opportunities as the art doesn't revolve around a particular material, therefore it can be used in any form a customer may require to be hand etched. It can also be done in a variety of different colours too, widening the market even more.

Disadvantages: depending on the required materials, tools etc.. hand etching can be quite expensive. It can also take a long time to do as the attention to detail, precision and accuracy is extremely important, especially to a paying customer.

Skills & Knowledge Required: critical thinking- using logic and reasoning to identify the strengths and weaknesses of alternative solutions, conclusions or approaches to problems.

Operation management- watching gauges, dials, etc to ensure machines are working properly.

Knowledge of raw materials, production processes, quality controls, costs, etc.

Knowledge of principles and processes for providing customer and personal services.

Cost: depending on the material you are etching and the tools you are using, this process could be quite expensive.

Speed: it takes long periods of time for the acid to react with the metal.

Technical Considerations: what chemicals to use: ferric chloride has virtually replaced the use of nitric acid and Dutch mordant as a solution for etching copper. Ferric chloride has the advantage of greatly improving the safety of etching. Ferric chloride is free from harmful gas emissions, it stains but doesn't burn skin.

Determining the length of time a plate should be left in acid: higher temperature speeds up the action of the etchant. The amount and the strength of the ferric chloride will also impact the speed of the etch.

Uses Through History: Harley Davidson used hand etching to carve their company logo into polished stone to represent the aims and objectives of their business. Etching was used by goldsmiths and other metal-workers to decorate metal items such as guns, armour, cups and plates and has been known since the middle ages at least. The process as applied to print making is believed to have been invented by Daniel Hopfer from Germany. He was a craftsman who decided to decorate his armour this way.

Potatoes

Paint

Paintbrushes

Scissors/carving knife

Chopping board

Paper plates

T-shirt

Tea towel

Sponges

Marker pens

Paper

Step One: draw design on paper.

Step Two: cut potatoes in half so they are clean and even to ensure the print doesn't come out uneven.

Step Three: dry potatoes so that the ink shows up on the potato when we draw our designs on.

Step Four: draw design on potato.

Step Five: carve design out of potato using either a carving knife or scissors. I used scissors as they were what I had, they were good for carving however if I used a carving knife I could have gotten more detail in the potato design. Health and safety is always important when using sharp utensils, for example when we were carving the potatoes we had to make sure we were cutting away from our body so if we slipped we wouldn't stab/injure ourselves. It is also important to be slow and steady when carving the potatoes as if our hands slipped we could cut our hands, like I did. If I was more careful and steady it wouldn't have happened.

Step Six: put paint on potato and print onto materials. I used a paintbrush to cover the potato in paint as if I just dipped it in too much paint would have gone on the potato and the print would have smudged. If I didn't put as much paint on my potato some of my prints wouldn't have smudged as much. Also, sometimes I didn't put enough paint on the potato the print also wouldn't come out very well. I used the potato to print on paper and on fabric. Printing on fabric was better because the fabric absorbed the paint better.

Step Seven: we used our potatoes to print the design in different colours. To do this I just wiped the paint off of the potato and re-painted it with a different colour. Sometimes if I didn't completely wipe the potato the colours would mix a little bit and the print wouldn't come out as well.

Step Eight: leave print to dry.

Step Nine: tidy up.

Cost: potato - £1.45 each

paint- £1.30 per bottle

paintbrushes - 40p each

scissors - £3.50 per pair

chopping board - £2 each

paper plates - 99p for 25

tea towel - £1.25 for 3

sponges - 33p each

marker pens - £1.55 for 20

paper - 1p per sheet/2p if coloured

Speed: 3 hours

Advantages: quick and simple way of printing

inexpensive way of printing

diverse - can be printed on almost any material

same potato can be used over and over again

can print with more than one colour using the same potato

Disadvantages: it's quite hard to get intricate details in the design