Mercenary: A hired soldier.

Importance: Used by city-states for military needs during the Renaissance.

Burgher: A member of the middle class, typically involved in trade.

Importance: Played a key role in the rise of the capitalist economy.

Republic: A government where officials are elected.

Importance: Influenced the development of modern democratic systems.

Humanism: Focus on classical texts and human potential.

Importance: Sparked the Renaissance’s cultural and intellectual growth.

Vernacular: The native language of a region.

Importance: Made literature and knowledge accessible to more people.

Fresco: Painting on wet plaster.

Importance: Widely used in Renaissance art, creating lasting works.

Perspective: Technique for creating depth in art.

Importance: Revolutionized art, making it more realistic.

Christian Humanism: Combining humanism with Christian teachings.

Importance: Inspired the Protestant Reformation.

Salvation: Deliverance from sin.

Importance: Central to religious debates during the Reformation.

Indulgence: A pardon reducing sin’s punishment.

Importance: Sparked criticism that led to the Protestant Reformation.

Lutheranism: Protestant Christianity based on Martin Luther’s teachings.

Importance: Challenged Catholic beliefs, sparking the Reformation.

Justification: Being declared righteous by God.

Importance: A central belief of the Reformation.

Predestination: Belief that God has already chosen who will be saved.

Importance: Key to Calvinism during the Reformation.

Annul: To declare something invalid, especially a marriage.

Importance: Henry VIII’s annulment led to the English Reformation.

Ghetto: A segregated area for a specific group.

Importance: Associated with Jewish communities during the Renaissance.