“Academic success and well-being has to be the foremost goal in our classrooms, as there is no greater responsibility than guiding students to achieve it.”

~ Fernando Pérez

Kuder, S. J. (2025). Teaching students with language and communication disabilities (5th ed., p. 84). Pearson.

https://youtu.be/zZgS8Ij1Ltg?si=h2wxw1Y-j1ilyhw8

An approach to instruction in which students are taught how to learn, not Language just what to learn. (Kuder, 2025, p. 90).

Students with learning disabilities often struggle with acquiring new vocabulary, making it essential to implement effective strategies that enhance their learning experience. One such method is the keyword strategy, originally described by Mastropieri (1988) and further explored in academic studies (Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1992). This approach has been proven successful in various educational settings, particularly for students with language-learning difficulties, as it provides a structured and engaging way to retain new words.

The keyword strategy follows three main steps:

1. Recoding – The student transforms a new vocabulary word into a keyword that sounds similar, is familiar, and can be visualized. For example, the word forte (meaning “loud”) could be associated with fort, as it sounds alike and creates a mental image.

2. Relating – The student connects the keyword to the meaning of the original word by using an illustration and a descriptive sentence. In this case, a picture of a fort under attack, with guns firing, reinforces the concept of “loud.” A sentence such as The guns at the fort are loud further strengthens the association.

3. Retrieving – When recalling the word’s definition, the student mentally revisits the keyword, visualizes the image, remembers the sentence, and states the meaning of the word—for example, recognizing that forte means “loud.”

While this process may appear time-consuming, research indicates that it is highly effective in improving vocabulary retention among students with learning disabilities (Condus, Marshall, & Miller, 1986; Mastropieri, Scruggs, Levin, Gaffney, & McLoone, 1985). The strategy is not limited to students with disabilities; studies have demonstrated that it also benefits typically developing learners. Uberti, Scruggs, and Mastropieri (2003) found that while traditional vocabulary instruction—such as providing definitions or illustrations—yielded similar results for students without disabilities, those with learning disabilities performed significantly better using the keyword method, even surpassing their peers.

The effectiveness of the keyword strategy highlights the importance of implementing structured, multisensory learning techniques in the classroom. By providing students with disabilities a concrete, visual, and interactive way to process new words, educators can help bridge the gap in language acquisition and foster greater academic success (Kuder, 2025, p. 90).

One approach within cognitive learning strategies is the semantic feature strategy, which involves using a relationship chart to compare key ideas from a reading passage with related vocabulary terms. In a study by Bos, Anders, Filip, and Jaffe (1989), high school students with learning disabilities used this method by defining each word and discussing how it connected to the main ideas in the text. The results showed that students who used this strategy performed better than their peers who relied solely on looking up definitions in a dictionary. A review of multiple studies by Jitendra, Edwards, Sacks, and Jacobson (2004) further confirmed that cognitive strategy instruction is a highly effective way to teach vocabulary to students with learning disabilities.

The following link provides with more information about the strategy learn above:

https://www.readingrockets.org/classroom/classroom-strategies/semantic-feature-analysis#:~:text=The%20semantic%20feature%20analysis%20strategy,enhances%20comprehension%20and%20vocabulary%20skills.

Another effective learning strategy is morphological analysis, which teaches students to break down words into meaningful parts such as prefixes, suffixes, and root words. Harris, Schumaker, and Deshler (2011) conducted a study comparing morphological analysis to an alternative vocabulary learning strategy. Their findings showed that both students with and without disabilities benefited from these strategies, making significant gains in vocabulary knowledge. However, those who used morphological analysis outperformed their peers in both alternative strategy and control groups, demonstrating the effectiveness of this method.

The following link provides with more information about the strategy learn above:

https://dyslexiahelp.umich.edu/professionals/dyslexia-school/morphological-awareness

These findings highlight the importance of using structured cognitive strategies to support students with learning disabilities in developing their vocabulary and overall language skills. By implementing strategies such as semantic feature analysis and morphological analysis, educators can provide students with tools to better understand and retain new words, ultimately improving their academic success (Kuder, 2025, p. 90).

Emerging technologies have shown great potential in assisting students with learning disabilities by addressing their unique challenges and improving academic outcomes. One promising approach involves the use of podcasts for vocabulary instruction, particularly in content-heavy subjects like social studies. Research by Kennedy and colleagues (2014, 2015) explored the effectiveness of content acquisition podcasts, which integrate visual, textual, and auditory elements following universal design for learning (UDL) principles. These podcasts provide word illustrations alongside voice-over explanations and definitions. Findings indicate that students with disabilities achieved significantly higher vocabulary scores and learned words more efficiently with this method compared to traditional instruction (Kuder, 2020, p. 91).

https://tedcec.org/sites/default/files/2020-12/Content_Acquisition_Podcasts.pdf

https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Education_and_Professional_Development/Comprehensive_Individualized_Curriculum_and_Instructional_Design_%28Sennott_et_al.%29/06%3A_Using_Content_Acquisition_Podcasts_%28CAPs%29_to_Improve_Vocabulary_Instruction_and_Learning_for_Students_with_Disabilities_and_Their_Teachers?utm_source=chatgpt.com

Another technological tool with potential benefits is speech recognition software, which converts spoken language into written text. Programs such as Dragon Naturally Speaking and IBM’s Via Voice have made this technology more accessible for students struggling with reading and writing. Research by Higgins and colleagues (2000, 2004) suggests that speech recognition software can enhance word recognition, spelling, reading comprehension, and phonological processing. However, there are notable challenges, including the time required to “train” the software to recognize a student’s voice and occasional inaccuracies in speech recognition, particularly among children with language impairments. Despite these obstacles, continued advancements in technology hold promise for supporting students with learning disabilities in the classroom (Kuder, 2020, p. 91).

https://www.readingrockets.org/topics/assistive-technology/articles/speech-recognition-learning

Kaiser, & Alpert, 1991).

Among the more highly structured procedures are those that use applied behavior analysis methods such as imitation, modeling, and/ or reinforcement. These approaches take the child through a highly structured sequence of steps toward a goal that is set prior to instruction.

Instructional approaches based on applied behavior analysis (ABA) principles have been quite successful in enhancing the language and literacy of children with significant disabilities, including intellectual disabilities and autism.

Incidental Teaching:

This approach is structured yet allows for more natural learning by prompting the child to initiate interaction within an arranged environment. The key steps are:

1. Choose a learning objective.

2. Arrange the environment to prompt the student’s initiation.

3. Wait for the student to initiate a response.

4. Prompt the student to elaborate on their response.

5. If the student responds correctly, provide praise and access to materials.

The goal is to encourage spontaneous communication while guiding the child toward using language in context. For a more detailed example of incidental teaching, the video linked can help explain the procedure.

Watch the video here.

Mand-Model Procedure:

This technique relies on natural interactions, where the adult initiates by using prompts within the child’s ongoing activities. For instance, when a child is scooping rice, the adult might say, “Tell me what you are doing,” prompting the child to respond with a more complete sentence. This method is designed to enhance language by modeling appropriate responses in everyday scenarios, rather than focusing on operant conditioning.

An example from Warren (1991):

• Context: Child is scooping rice.

• Adult: “Tell me what you are doing.”

• Child: “Beans.”

• Adult: “Well then, say, ‘Pour beans.’”

• Child: “Pour beans.”

• Adult: “That’s right, you’re pouring beans into the pot.”

This approach encourages verbal interaction while linking the language to real-world activities.

Interrupted-Behavior-Chain Strategy:

This method incorporates teaching a language skill within an already established behavior sequence. The key idea is to interrupt a routine, like grocery shopping, to insert a language skill—such as asking the student to describe or identify items—while the activity is ongoing. By interrupting the flow of an activity, the student is prompted to practice a new skill in context.

An example from Caro and Snell (1989):

• Context: Grocery shopping.

• Instructor’s Action: After the student places an item in the cart, the instructor asks, “What did you put in the cart?”

• The student is then prompted to respond or choose from a set of pictures.

This strategy helps students learn new skills without isolating them from real-life tasks.

Key Considerations for Instructional Methods:

• Focus on Relevant Skills: Identify and teach skills that are necessary for the child’s daily life.

• Use Appropriate Reinforcers: Utilize rewards that motivate and engage the child.

• Naturalistic Instruction Settings: Provide opportunities for practice in everyday environments.

• Generalization of Skills: Ensure that learned skills are transferable to different settings and contexts.

These strategies, rooted in ABA principles, focus on teaching skills in a more natural context, ensuring that students with intellectual disabilities can generalize and apply what they learn in real-world scenarios.

Incidental Teaching:

This approach is structured yet allows for more natural learning by prompting the child to initiate interaction within an arranged environment. The key steps are:

1. Choose a learning objective.

2. Arrange the environment to prompt the student’s initiation.

3. Wait for the student to initiate a response.

4. Prompt the student to elaborate on their response.

5. If the student responds correctly, provide praise and access to materials.

The goal is to encourage spontaneous communication while guiding the child toward using language in context. For a more detailed example of incidental teaching, the video linked can help explain the procedure.

Watch the video here.

Mand-Model Procedure: https://youtu.be/_XYfQpOmB4M?si=kV4jvrnoM7N9tN3Z

This technique relies on natural interactions, where the adult initiates by using prompts within the child’s ongoing activities. For instance, when a child is scooping rice, the adult might say, “Tell me what you are doing,” prompting the child to respond with a more complete sentence. This method is designed to enhance language by modeling appropriate responses in everyday scenarios, rather than focusing on operant conditioning.

An example from Warren (1991):

• Context: Child is scooping rice.

• Adult: “Tell me what you are doing.”

• Child: “Beans.”

• Adult: “Well then, say, ‘Pour beans.’”

• Child: “Pour beans.”

• Adult: “That’s right, you’re pouring beans into the pot.”

This approach encourages verbal interaction while linking the language to real-world activities.

Interrupted-Behavior-Chain Strategy: https://youtu.be/Hj_qSjoIHmo?si=na_OzZLxJZDAD4pP

This method incorporates teaching a language skill within an already established behavior sequence. The key idea is to interrupt a routine, like grocery shopping, to insert a language skill—such as asking the student to describe or identify items—while the activity is ongoing. By interrupting the flow of an activity, the student is prompted to practice a new skill in context.

An example from Caro and Snell (1989):

• Context: Grocery shopping.

• Instructor’s Action: After the student places an item in the cart, the instructor asks, “What did you put in the cart?”

• The student is then prompted to respond or choose from a set of pictures.

This strategy helps students learn new skills without isolating them from real-life tasks.

Key Considerations for Instructional Methods:

• Focus on Relevant Skills: Identify and teach skills that are necessary for the child’s daily life.

• Use Appropriate Reinforcers: Utilize rewards that motivate and engage the child.

• Naturalistic Instruction Settings: Provide opportunities for practice in everyday environments.

• Generalization of Skills: Ensure that learned skills are transferable to different settings and contexts.

These strategies, rooted in ABA principles, focus on teaching skills in a more natural context, ensuring that students with intellectual disabilities can generalize and apply what they learn in real-world scenarios.

1. Requiring very substantial support: Characterized by severe deficits in verbal and nonverbal social communication.

2. Requiring substantial support: Characterized by marked deficits in verbal and nonverbal social communication.

3. Requiring support: Characterized by impairments in social communication when supports are not in place.

Discrete Trial Training (DTT)

A prominent ABA approach, particularly for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), is Discrete Trial Training (DTT). This method involves structured, repetitive teaching cycles, where the adult presents a stimulus (such as an instruction), the child responds, and a consequence follows (such as reinforcement for correct responses or corrective feedback for mistakes). DTT is executed in trials, which are single teaching units that involve a clear sequence of antecedents, behaviors, and consequences.

Research findings:

• Studies have shown that DTT, especially when delivered early and intensively, leads to improvements in IQ and expressive speech in children with ASD. For instance, Lovaas (1987) found that children receiving intensive early intervention exhibited higher IQ scores and more expressive speech compared to peers who received less intensive treatment.

• Follow-up studies (McEachin, Smith, & Lovaas, 1993; Smith et al., 1997) showed that the positive effects of intensive behavioral treatment persisted over time.

Concerns and Criticisms

Despite the success of DTT, some key concerns have been raised:

1. Outcome Claims: Some proponents of DTT, like Lovaas, have claimed that it can lead to “recovery” from autism. However, critics argue that these claims are not well-supported by research design and replication, suggesting that the Lovaas approach is still experimental and does not promise a cure.

2. Exclusivity: Advocates for DTT sometimes argue that it should be the sole method for treating ASD. However, research suggests that other methods may be equally or more effective in addressing social skills and pragmatic language issues that are often problematic for individuals with autism.

3. Intensity: DTT advocates claim that it needs to be implemented for 40 hours a week over several years for success. However, there is no empirical evidence that such intensive intervention is necessary for all children, and this approach may overlook individual differences in children’s strengths and weaknesses.

4. Personnel Training: The qualification of those administering DTT is a contentious issue. Some argue that trainers do not need certification, while others believe that uncertified trainers may lack the necessary skills to customize interventions and respond to children’s needs.

Current Trends and Adjustments

Contemporary ABA approaches have evolved from traditional DTT. While early DTT focused on teaching isolated words out of context, more recent approaches emphasize the generalization of language skills to natural social environments. These modern approaches incorporate:

• Child-Centered Focus: ABA interventions are increasingly based on the child’s interests and everyday activities to create more relevant and engaging learning opportunities.

• Naturalistic Settings: The role of the child as an active communicative partner in natural settings is emphasized to facilitate more authentic language use.

ABA approaches, particularly DTT, have been successful in improving language and communication skills in children with autism and other language disabilities. However, contemporary strategies are adjusting to focus on more naturalistic, child-driven interventions that integrate skills into real-world contexts, addressing some of the concerns raised about the intensity and scope of earlier ABA methods.

The Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS), developed by Bondy and Frost in 1994, is a communication method that uses pictures to facilitate meaningful communication exchanges. Initially designed for individuals with autism, PECS has been successfully applied to a variety of individuals with significant disabilities. The program incorporates behavioral methodologies and incidental teaching techniques to improve social communication.

Training Phases and Process:

PECS progresses through six phases, with each phase increasing in complexity to develop more sophisticated communication skills.

• Phase I: The child is taught to exchange a picture for an item they desire. For example, if a child reaches for an item, the trainer places a picture of that item in the child’s hand, guiding them to hand it to the trainer in exchange for the item.

• Later Phases: As the child advances, they are guided to engage in more spontaneous communication, use sentence strings, and broaden their communicative repertoire.

Research and Effectiveness:

PECS has shown significant effectiveness in enhancing communication skills. According to Bondy and Frost (1994), 76% of 66 children without functional speech developed speech or used a combination of speech and the PECS system. The program also led to notable behavioral improvements.

In studies like Ganz and Simpson (2004), children with developmental disabilities (including autism) showed rapid progress, acquiring new words and communication skills. Yoder and Stone’s (2006) comparison of PECS with Responsive Education and Prelinguistic Milieu Teaching (RPMT) showed that children using PECS made more significant progress in communication.

Research Support and Limitations:

A review by Sulzer-Azaroff et al. (2009) analyzed 34 peer-reviewed studies and found that PECS is an effective tool for teaching functional communication. It was shown to be as effective or superior to other methods and supported speech development in some cases. However, Flippen et al. (2010) noted limited evidence of PECS significantly increasing speech in children.

While PECS has limitations, such as a limited range of communicative functions and the issue of portability with pictures, it remains an effective tool for enhancing communication, especially in helping children initiate and engage in social exchanges.

Resources for Further Information:

1. American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) – Position statements on AIT and auditory processing disorders.

https://www.asha.org/policy/tr2004-00260/?srsltid=AfmBOoqcKSYM1n4M1FtKzr2n98VLrOE1JqwTnm40KUsbJoPTrhrFy8R8

2. National Autism Center – Provides evaluations of various autism interventions, including AIT.

https://nationalautismcenter.org/autism/autism-interventions/

3. The Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders – Peer-reviewed studies on interventions for autism, including AIT

https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11638897/

Several factors contribute to the reading difficulties experienced by students with hearing impairments. Kuder (2020) explains that one of the primary challenges is obstructed access to the phonological code, as children who are deaf typically develop phonological skills more slowly than their hearing counterparts. This can hinder their ability to use phonics-based decoding strategies, which are crucial for reading fluency and comprehension (Sterne & Goswami, 2000). Additionally, many students with hearing impairments enter formal schooling with limited English fluency, making them similar to second-language learners who must simultaneously acquire both spoken language and literacy skills. These students also tend to have reduced exposure to print and books in early childhood, as their parents may read to them less frequently or interact differently with texts than parents of hearing children (Paul, 1998; Aram, Most, & Mayafit, 2006). Research further suggests that vocabulary acquisition is slower in children with hearing impairments, resulting in smaller lexicons and difficulties with word recognition, syntax, and morphology—fundamental components of reading comprehension (Lederberg & Spencer, 2001; Gibbs, 2004). Deficits in cognitive and metacognitive skills, including prior knowledge activation, memory, attention, and comprehension monitoring, have also been linked to reading struggles among this population (Marschark et al., 2009; Daza, Phillips-Silver, Ruiz-Cuadra, & Lopez-Lopez, 2014).

In addressing these challenges, various instructional approaches have been proposed to support literacy development in students who are deaf or hearing impaired. Kuder (2020) describes a balanced literacy approach, which integrates phonics-based instruction with whole-word reading, as one potential method, although research on its effectiveness for deaf students remains inconclusive (Marschark et al., 2002). Since phonological awareness and vocabulary development are critical areas of difficulty, educators may benefit from implementing visual-based phonological instruction methods such as Cued Speech and Visual Phonics, which provide visual representations of speech sounds to aid in reading development (Wang, Trezek, Luckner, & Paul, 2008). Additionally, increasing students’ exposure to literacy experiences—such as shared book reading, writing activities, and explicit English language instruction—may help mitigate some of the disadvantages faced by this population (Luckner, Sebald, Cooney, Young III, & Muir, 2005/2006). One intervention that has demonstrated success in improving literacy outcomes for deaf students is the Reading Recovery program, a one-on-one tutoring approach designed to accelerate the progress of struggling readers. A study involving first-grade students with severe and profound hearing impairments found that participation in Reading Recovery led to significant reading improvements, with several students achieving grade-level proficiency by the end of the intervention (Charlesworth, Charlesworth, Raban, & Rickards, 2005). Although long-term effects of this program remain uncertain, it represents a promising option for supporting early literacy development in children with significant hearing loss.

Ultimately, while students with sensory disabilities face distinct obstacles in literacy acquisition, research suggests that targeted interventions focusing on phonological awareness, vocabulary growth, and individualized instruction can lead to meaningful improvements in reading outcomes. As educators continue to explore effective strategies, a combination of evidence-based practices and early intervention will be essential in promoting literacy success for students who are deaf or hearing impaired (Kuder, 2020).

A study by Everhart and Marschark (1988) found that when children who were deaf, between the ages of 8 and 15, were asked to write a story about being picked up by a UFO, their responses were shorter, used simpler sentences, and lacked descriptive elements compared to their hearing peers. Interestingly, when telling the same story through sign language, the children demonstrated more sophisticated and imaginative ideas, suggesting that their cognitive abilities exceeded their written language skills.

The academic achievement of students who are deaf can be interpreted in two ways. A pessimistic view acknowledges that, despite significant efforts, their reading and writing skills remain behind those of their hearing peers, and the gap tends to widen over time. However, an optimistic perspective suggests that these deficiencies can be addressed through early intervention, consistent language exposure, and appropriate educational programs (Kuder, 2020, p. 176). These findings emphasize the importance of tailored literacy instruction and support systems to help students who are deaf develop stronger written communication skills.

Cochlear implants, unlike hearing aids, are surgically implanted devices that directly stimulate the auditory nerve, allowing individuals to perceive sound. Research has shown that early implantation can significantly improve language and literacy development in children. However, cochlear implants require extensive post-surgical speech and language training, and their use remains a controversial topic within the deaf community. Some argue that implants reinforce the idea that deafness is a condition that needs to be “fixed,” which can create identity struggles for children growing up between the deaf and hearing worlds (Kuder, 2020).

Educators play a critical role in supporting students who use these technologies. Teachers should ensure that hearing aids are functioning correctly, provide accessible learning environments, and offer research-based guidance to families considering cochlear implants. By understanding both the benefits and limitations of these technologies, educators can help create an inclusive and supportive educational experience for students with hearing impairments (Kuder, 2020).

Other resource to learn more about it:

https://www.infanthearing.org/ehdi-ebook/2018_ebook/8%20Chapter8Amplificiation2018.pdf

https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/cochlear-implants/about/pac-20385021

For children with neuromotor disorders, engaging in literacy-based activities can offer significant benefits. These activities might include listening to stories, watching videos, or using computer word-processing programs designed for minimal motor movement. These tools can help children communicate more effectively and express themselves despite physical limitations. Additionally, it is essential to create an environment that fosters interaction by ensuring that children have plenty of opportunities to engage with others. Teachers play a key role by encouraging communication, setting up appropriate positioning, and participating in communicative exchanges themselves (Kuder, 2020).

By broadening the scope of intervention to include these activities, educators can help children with neuromotor disorders enhance both their communication skills and their overall literacy development, providing them with more opportunities to connect and participate meaningfully in their education.

https://statelibrary.ncdcr.gov/teaching-strategies-motor-impairments/download?attachment

https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/jengle/chapter/introduction-to-neuromotor-disorders-2/

Telzrow (1987) proposed 10 key elements for an educational program tailored to children with TBI, including the creation of a controlled environment, ensuring low pupil-teacher ratios with the support of aides, and providing intensive and repetitive instruction to help students learn at their own pace. Teachers should also emphasize the process of learning, focusing on attention and memory development. Behavioral strategies such as task analysis and progress measurement are essential, along with integrated therapies that incorporate speech and physical therapy into the classroom setting. Other interventions may include simulation experiences to help transfer learned skills and the use of cuing, fading, and shadowing to guide the child through new tasks or environments. Additionally, readjustment counseling may support the child’s transition, and building a home-school liaison is crucial to ensure family involvement and support.

Students may also require accommodations, like sitting closer to the teacher or using a peer helper, as well as frequent breaks to prevent fatigue. Technological tools, such as FM wireless communication systems, electronic organizers, or word-processing software, may help these students manage attention difficulties and organizational challenges (Bowen, 2005). For children with language impairments, a variety of services, such as speech therapy, specialized reading and writing programs, or augmentative communication devices, may be necessary. Teachers must adjust their language to the child’s level of comprehension and create interactive opportunities for communication with peers.

Here we can find some other intervention and other resouces:

https://www.brainline.org/article/classroom-interventions-students-traumatic-brain-injuries