• Speaker's first language; native language

• Sometimes referred to as "mother tongue"

• Used and learned by a person from birth until critical period

  • critical period

    • delimited in different ways in the literature

    • Lenneberg's critical period - from two years of age to puberty

    • some consider the possibility of the critical period ending earlier than puberty

• Language used at home

• Learned from people they interacted since birth

• Like an instinct which is triggered by birth and developed with the experience of being exposed to it

6 Stages of First Language Acquisition

1. Prelinguistic Stage

   • ranges from birth to approximately 6 months

   • include crying, whimpering, and cooing

   • not considered language because they are involuntary responses to stimuli

   • might more appropriately be called the pre-production stage

2. Babbling Stage

   • 6 months of age and continues until a child is about one year old

   • more varied constrictions can be formed, which leads to a new stage of vocal play or babbling

   • 2 Types of Babbling

     • Repetitive babbling - same syllable in each successive cycle

     • Variegated babbling - variation in syllables in successive cycles

3. First Words Stage

   • starts at about one year and continues for approximately 6 to 12 months

   • referred to as the Holophrastic Stage

     • one word = one sentence

   • first words often exhibit the same structure as babbled syllables, with a CV (consonant-vowel) syllable used as a word

   • continue to develop their abilities to produce more and more individual sound segments

4. Two Word Stage

   • 18-24 months (1½ or 2 years) and continues for several months

   • increase the repertoire of sounds and vocabulary they can produce

   • Overextensions

     • meaning plugs a hole until the child can learn the proper word

   • Underextension

     • a child uses a word for too many different cases

   • Contextual clues

     • attaching meaning in this stage

5. Telegraphic Stage

   • occurs around the age of 2 1/2 years

   • children begin stringing more than two words together

   • this stage resembles the way of writing that used to be used in telegrams

6. Beyond the Telegraphic Stage

   • age of 3 years and continues into fully developed language skills

   • a similar pattern of overgeneralization is used (use of -ed in making a verb past tense)

Critical Period Hypothesis

• Eric Lenneberg promoted the idea that language is innate

• Lenneberg suggested that although the capability for language is innate, it must be triggered by the environment

• a child must be in an environment that includes human language in order to acquire it comes from cases of feral, isolated, and neglected children who demonstrate little or no language use and who learn little or no language

Second Language

• Language accommodated by the person after learning L1

• Refers to the language the person is currently learning

• Product of language learning

• Learned by choice, consciously by guidance, and instruction in a constant effort.

The ability of a person to use a second language will depend on his or her family’s ability to speak more than one language.

• theoretical linguistics or general linguistics

• more on the structures of the language system in itself and for itself

• study of small-scale linguistic phenomena within a specific language or languages

• focuses on detailed analysis of fundamental properties of languages and linguistic elements

Branches under Micro-linguistics¹

1. Phonology

   • studies the system of sounds

   • studies the systematic pattern of sounds

   • how speech sounds are organized

2. Phonetics

   • studies the physical property of sounds

   • how sounds are produced and articulated

3. Morphology

   • study of morphemes

     • smallest meaningful unit of a language

   • describes how words are formed

   • how word formation processes affect the meaning of the word

4. Syntax

   • arrangement of words and phrases to form sentences

   • syntaxis

     • Greek word meaning arrangement

   • how words, phrases, clauses are arranged or ordered to form sentences

5. Semantics

   • linguistic meaning of words and sentences

   • language meaning in terms of words-sentence relationships

   • lexical

6. Pragmatics

   • studies the contextual meaning

   • meaning beyond the surface or literal level

   • intended meaning of the speaker, rather than what the sentence literally means

Macro-linguistics

• focus on the way languages are acquired, stored in the brain and used for various functions

• Looks at linguistics with a broader view

• application of language in daily use

Branches under Macro-linguistics¹

1. Sociolinguistics

   • study of the effects of the different social and cultural factors

   • analyzes how people make choices in terms of language style or the way they use language to express their personal and social identity

2. Psycholinguistics

   • focuses on the interrelation between linguistic and psychological factors

3. Computational Linguistics

   • studies the application of computer science in the analysis of language and speech

   • how computational modeling and approaches can be used to help describe linguistic processes

4. Historical Linguistics

   • known as diachronic linguistics

   • study of language change or change of a group of languages over time

5. Comparative Linguistics

   • comparative-historical linguistics

   • concerned with comparing languages to establish their similarities and differences

6. Structural Linguistics

   • study of language as an independent network of formal systems or structures

   • based on theories and principles that language is composed of structural units

7. Biolinguistics

   • study involving other disciplines such as biology, linguistics, psychology, and neurolinguistics

   • explain the evolution and formation of language

8. Applied Linguistics

   • application of language studies in real life, such as language teaching and learning

9. Clinical Linguistics

   • application of linguistic concepts and theories in the field of speech-language pathology

10. Developmental Linguistics

    • studies the development of the linguistic ability of an individual especially children

11. Linguistic typology

    • aims to classify languages on their structural and functional components

12. Neurolinguistics

    • studies the relationship between language and the structures and functions of the brain

    • analyzes the different functions and mechanisms of the brain related to language comprehension

13. Stylistics

    • literary linguistics

    • studies the different authors and writers especially on their writing styles

14. Etymology

    • investigate the origin of the words

References

1. Gonzales, Jennifer. Introduction to Linguistics. 2021.

• singular, unified standard of English

  spoken globally

• British or American English

• used as a lingua franca in international

  communication, business, and scientific fields

• Implies a universal standard

• associated with notions of "correctness" and

  "prestige."

World Englishes

• refers to the differences in the English language that emerge as it is used in various contexts across the world

• diversity of English spoken around the world

• that each variety has its own unique features in

  pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, and register

• challenges the idea of a single "correct" English

• dynamic and evolving nature of language

• needs can differ across cultures and geographies, multiple varieties of the English language exist

• includes the sociolinguistic context of its use, its range of functional domains, and the ease with which new speakers can become acculturated to it, among other criteria

Globalization as an Agent

• Nativization Continuum of World Englishes

  1. Diffusion - English is spread as a result of colonization, globalization

  2. Induction - English is officially accepted as the language used for trade, communication, education, and so on

  3. Customization - reshape English slowly by giving it a local touch

  4. Native Recognition - start to use English unconsciously without associating with its parent varieties.

• Kachru's Concentric Circle

  • Linguist Braj Kachru (1932-2016) publishes his first journal article, entitled “The Indianness in Indian English.”

  • In the article, he lays the theoretical groundwork for the idea of World Englishes by interpreting how English is nativized in India, delineating some of its unique sociological and cultural aspects, and showing that “Indian English” is a unique variety of English which is neither an American or British English.

  • Kachru formally introduces the term “World Englishes” at the Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL)

  • Later, he proposes the three concentric circles model.

    • Kachru's Concentric Circle is composed of: inner circle, outer circle, and expanding circle

      • Inner Circle

        • presents the countries where English is the primary language and is used in daily life and government

          institutions

        • United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand

      • Outer Circle

        • includes countries that have British colonial ties, and English is widely used in social life or in the government sector

        • India, Malaysia, Singapore, Ghana, Kenya, and others

        • English as a second language

      • Expanding Circle

        • introduce English as a foreign language in education, mainly for the purpose of communicating in English

        • Turkey, Saudi Arabia, The Emirates, Japan, China, South Korea

• The Power of English

  • Kachru's parameters of the power of the English language

    1. Demographical and numerical: unprecedented spread across cultures and languages

    2. Functional: provides access to the most important scientific, technological and cross-cultural domains

    3. Attitudinal: symbolizes certainly to a large group across cultures

    4. Accessibility: international accessibility in the outer circle and international mobility

    5. Pluricentricity: resulted in the nativization

       and acculturation of language

• any variety of English native to the Philippines

• used by the media and the vast majority of educated Filipinos

• English is taught in schools as one of the two official languages of the country

Philippine English Revisited (Martin, 2014)

Circles of English in the Philippine Context

• Kachru presented the framework to Filipino scholars

• Bolton (2011) - "Philippine English had become worthy of study as any other global variety of English"

  1. Inner Circle of English in the Philippines

     • elite educated Filipinos who have embraced the English language and actively use and promote it

       
       

     • Thompson (2003)

       • "Filipino English and Taglish"

         • Three questions come to mind when English speakers arrive in Manila

           • Why are Filipinos so attached to English? If they like English so much, why do they sometimes speak English, sometimes Tagalog, and sometimes mix the two?

     • Borlongan (2011)

       • English continues to dominate domains

       • language that is not deficient and may represent Filipino identity

       • Philippine English is pushed as a language that must be taught in the classroom

  2. Outer Circle of English in the Philippines

     • aware of Philippine English as a distinct and legitimate variety

     • Lexical Innovations:

       • hold-upper - robber

       • academician - academic

       • presidentiable - presidential candidate

       • meldific - Imelda + -ific : ostentatious extravagance (pertaining to the wealthy Imelda Marcos)

  3. Expanding Circle of English in the Philippines

     • English remains a requisite condition to upward mobility but is often very difficult to access

     • Funny English

       • Pacquaio is known for this

         • Viloria (2011) - "It doesn't matter of the grammar, as long they understand the message."

       • Ear (2011) - Filipina Talking to her non-Filipino boyfriend:

         • ‘Yes, babe, dis 3 pm is hot but dis 4 pm, its

           coming rain babe.’

         • ‘Oh babe look at, your dog is look at me.’

Philippine English, an outer circle country, can be though of as a circle with many circles.

• Most of the world’s population is bilingual or multilingual

• Monolingualism

  • characteristic only a minor of world’s people

• Most world nations has groups who use other languages side from their national language

• UNESCO (2003: 12)

  • “Bilingualism or multilingualism is the use of more than one language in daily life”

Key Concepts Related to Multilingualism

• Bilingualism - both bilingualism and multilingualism

• Bilingual - two native speakers in one

• Ambilingual - native competency of two languages

• Multilingual (Multilingualism) - refers to societies

• Plurilingual (Plurilingualism) - refers to individuals

• Ethnolinguistic Community

  • refer to a group of people who share a culture, ethnicity and/or language that distinguishes them from other communities

  • “ethnic minorities”, tribals"

  • may be derogatory and are understood differently

  • discouraged in the study because these terms pose threats to misinterpretation and misrepresentation (Kosonen, 2005, 2010)

• Language Policy - legislation on and practices pertaining to the use of languages in a society

• Language-in-education Policy - practices pertaining to

  languages or media of instruction and languages of literacy used in basic education.

• Language of Literacy - through which literacy is learnt, conveyed

• Language of Instruction - language through which the contents of the curriculum in a given educational system

• First Language (L1)

  • mother tongue

  • vernacular

  • language the speaker has learnt first

  • knows best

• Dialect - non-standard variety of a language

• Non-dominant Languages (NDL)

  • not considered the most prominent in terms of number, prestige, or official use by the government

• Local Language

  • spoken in a fairly restricted geographical area

  • usually not learned as a second language by people outside

  • usually the first language of the given ethnolinguistic minority group

• Language of Wider Communication (LWC)

  • that speakers of different local languages use to communicate with each other

  • trade language

• Second Language (L2)

  • national or the official language, employed in contexts such as schools, interaction with government agencies

• National Language

  • language that is considered to be the chief language of a nation state (Crystal, 1999; 227)

  • official language-used in such public domains

• Bilingual/Multilingual Education

  • use of more than one language for instruction and attaining literacy

• Biliteracy

  • use of more than one language for reading and writing

• Mother Tongue/ L1-Based

  • multilingual education which begins with or is based on the learners’ first language or mother tongue

• Submersion Education

  • refers to deployment of a language of instruction that the learner does not speak or understand

• Oral use of a language

  • employment of an auxiliary language to enable learners to understand the contents of the curriculum and its textbooks

Language of Instruction in Southeast Asia

• Philippines

  • 183 languages are spoken

  • lingua francas

    • Bicol

    • Cebuano

    • Ilonggo

    • Ilocano

    • Tagalog

  • Constitution of 1987

    • Filipino is the national language

    • English is also an official language

  • Philippines adopted a policy of Mother Tongue-based Multilingual Education in 2009

    • DepEd Order 74 - framework for MLE as the basis of educational language policy

  • Republic Act no. 10533 in 2013

    • 19 languages are used as the initial LOIs in government schools, and dozens of other languages are used in programs supported by non governmental and civil society actors (Gunigundo, 2013; Metila et al., 2016)

      
      

Challenges Encountered in Multilingual Classrooms

• policies and policy implementation reflect the governments’ positions on the official and national, non-dominant, as well as international languages – predominantly English

• Non-dominant languages are rarely prioritized in language policies

• English is prioritized in education

• Language policies support the use of only some non-dominant languages in education

• Gap (among southeast Asian nations) between policy and practice

• Government officials and agencies often misunderstand the concepts of bilingual or multilingual education

• confusion about the difference of using languages for instruction or studying them as subjects

• Assimilation of minority populations into dominant languages

• ethnolinguistic classification is done with criteria not necessarily based on the languages people speak

• Ethnicity and language proficiency is not necessarily a one-on-one match