Our level of awareness about ourselves and our environment.

Differences in being aware of one's own existence, feelings, and thoughts and aware of environment.

The information about yourself and your environment you are currently aware of.

Body processes controlled by your mind that we are not usually (or ever) aware of.

Information about yourself or your environment that you are not currently think about (not in your conscious level) but you could be.

Information that we are not consciously aware of but we know must exist due to behavior.

Where some events and feelings that are unacceptable to our conscious mind and are repressed.

A state of consciousness where we are less aware of ourselves and our environment than we are when we are in our normal awake state.

Our typical pattern of sleep

During our sleep cycles, there are four stages where our brain waves and level of awareness change.

During this stage, our brains produce theta waves.

During this stage, our brains show sleep spindles, which are short bursts of rapid brain waves.

During this stage, our brains begin producing delta waves.

During this stage, our brains produce the slowest brain waves--delta waves. It is also our deepest stage of sleep in which night terrors occur.

Stage when our brain waves appear as active and intense as they do when we are awake. This is when dreams occur. It is also known as paradoxical sleep.

They cause continuous disruption in our sleep patterns

The most common sleep disorder. It's when a person has problems getting to sleep or staying asleep at night.

When people suffer from periods of intense sleepiness and may fall asleep at unpredictable and inappropriate times.

It causes a person to stop breathing for short periods of time during the night, and the body slightly wakes up the person to gasp for air and continue sleeping.

When a person in the middle of the night screams and moves around the area; it occurs in stage 4 sleep.

The series of storylike images we experience as we sleep.

Emphasizes dream interpretation as a method to uncover the repressed information in the unconscious mind.

The literal content of our dreams.

The unconscious meaning of the manifest content.

Dreams are biological phenomena; theorizes that dream are nothing more than the brain's interpretations of what is happening physiologically during REM sleep.

Theorizes that the brain is dealing with daily stress and information during REM dreams; theorizes the function of REM may be to integrate the information processed during the day into our memories.

An unconscious social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur.

When people report forgetting events that occurred while they were hypnotized.

A suggestion that a hypnotized person behave in a certain way after he or she is brought out of hypnosis.

Hypnosis is not an alternate state of consciousness.

Hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness; we become more or less aware of our environments.

Hypnosis causes us to divide our consciousness voluntarily; one part or level of our consciousness responds to the suggestions of the hypnotist while another part or level retains awareness of our environments.
Psychoactive Drugs

Chemicals that change the chemistry of the brain and body, and induce an altered state of consciousness.

Drugs that mimic neurotransmitters

Drugs that block neurotransmitters

A physiological change that produces a need for more of the same drug in order to achieve the same effect.

The discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug

Psychoactive drugs that speed up body processes

Psychoactive drugs that slow down body processes

Psychoactive drugs that change perceptions of reality

Psychoactive drugs that depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.

Founder of functionalism by studying how humans use perception to function in our environment. He wrote the first psychology textbook--The Principles of Psychology.

Austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality formation; founded psychoanalysis.

Founded the dissociation theory in which hypnosis involves not only social influences but also a special state of dissociation.

When we prefer stimuli we have seen before over novel stimuli.

Some people are more easily hypnotized than others.

long-lasting change in behavior resulting from experience

type of learning where people and animals can learn to associate neutral stimuli (ex: sound) with stimuli that produce reflexive, involuntary responses (ex: food) and will learn to respond similarly to the new stimulus as they did to the old one (ex: salivate).

stimuli that only focuses attention

original stimulus that elicits a natural, reflexive response

the natural response elicited from the unconditioned stimulus

the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

the originally irrelevant stimulus that now triggers a conditioned response after association with an unconditioned stimulus

the acquiring of a new behavior that occurs once one responds to the CS without the US present

acquisition with the presentation of the CS followed by the US

acquisition with the presentation of the CS, followed by a short break, followed by the presentation of the US

acquisition with the presentation of the CS and the US at the same time

acquisition with the US presented first, followed by the CS

the process of unlearning a behavior, achieved when the CS no longer elicits the CR

phenomenon where the CR briefly reappears upon presentation of the CS after a CR has been extinguished and no further training has taken place

the tendency to respond to similar CS'

the ability to tell the difference between various stimuli

conditioning to avoid the US

the brief use of a CS as a US to elicit a new stimulus (only possible once a CS elicits a CR)

the aversion developed to certain foods due to illness after ingestion

easily noticeable stimuli

the ease with which animals learn taste aversions that occurs whenever nausea is paired with food or drink

type of learning based on the association of consequences with behaviors

law that states that if consequences to a behavior are pleasant, the stimulus-response connection will be strengthened, increasing the likelihood of that behavior; if consequences to a behavior are unpleasant, the stimulus-response connection will weaken, lessening the likelihood of that behavior

a box that delivers food to animals with a lever to press or disk to peck

any event that makes the behavior more likely to occur

the process of reinforcing a behavior

the addition of something to increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring

the removal of something to increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring

the termination of an aversive stimulus

the avoidance of an aversive stimulus

anything that makes a behavior less likely to occur

the addition of something unpleasant to make a behavior less likely to occur

the removal of something pleasant to make a behavior less likely to occur

technique that reinforces the small steps used to reach the desired behavior

technique that links together separate behaviors into a complex activity

reinforcers that are rewarding

reinforcers that we value

system that uses tokens as rewards for performing desired behaviors

principle that states that more probable behaviors can be used to reinforce less probable behaviors

the reward of a desired behavior continuously

the reward of a desired behavior intermittently

the phenomenon where behaviors will be more resistant to extinction if not reinforced continuously

schedule that requires a set number of responses before a response results in reinforcement

schedule that varies the number of responses before a response results in reinforcement

schedule that requires that a certain amount of time elapses before a response will result in reinforcement

schedule that varies the amount of time that elapses before a response will result in reinforcement

the tendency for animals to forgo rewards to pursue their typical patterns of behavior

type of learning that depends on processes not directly observable that argues conditioning has a cognitive component

the Pavlovian model that postulates that the more times things are paired, the greater the learning that will take place

model that postulates that A is contingent upon B when A depends on B and vice versa

type of learning that occurs through the observation of a behavior

type of learning that becomes obvious only once reinforcement is given for demonstrating it

type of learning that involves understanding concepts rather than learning simply to secure a reward

type of learning that occurs when one suddenly realizes how to solve a problem

any indication that learning has persisted over time

model that proposes that there are three stages that information passes through before it is stored

the split-second holding tank for incoming sensory information

type of sensory memory that is a split-second perfect photograph of a scene

type of sensory memory that is a brief (3-4 sec) perfect memory of sounds

the process by which one can pick out different encoding for encoding

the information one is currently working with and is aware of in one's consciousness

the grouping of information to aid short-term memory (no more than 7 groups)

memory aids

the repetition of information to aid short-term memory

permanent storage of information

type of long-term memory that involves specific events, stored in a sequential series

type of long-term memory that involves general knowledge, stored as facts, meanings, or categories

type of long-term memory that involves the performance of skills, stored sequentially, but complicated to describe with words

the conscious memories of facts or events that we actively try to remember

the unintentional memories we might not realize we have

the ability to recall memories with extreme accuracy

model that proposes that there are two levels of processing, rather than distinct stages

processing that involves meaningless rehearsal that leads to short-term retention

processing information in a meaningful way that increases its likelihood of being stored in memory

the gathering of information out of memory so that it can be used

type of retrieval that is the process of matching a current event or fact with one already in memory

type of retrieval that retrieves a memory with an external cue

the prediction that we are more likely to recall items presented at the beginning of a list

the prediction that we are more likely to recall items presented at the end of a list

the prediction that we are more likely to recall items presented at the beginning or the end of a list, but forget items in the middle

the temporary inability to remember information

theory that states that our brain forms new memories by connecting their meaning and context with meanings already in memories

detailed snapshots of the moment and circumstances surrounding the moment shocking information was heard

phenomenon where there is a greater likelihood of recalling an item when our current mood matches the mood we were in when the event occurred

phenomenon where there is a greater likelihood of recalling events while in a particular state of consciousness

phenomenon where individuals claim to suddenly remember events they have "repressed" into the unconscious mind

a false recollection of events

a cause of forgetting when we do not use a memory or its connections for a long time

prediction that it will take less time to learn something again

a cause of forgetting where other information in your memory competes with what you want to recall

interference where the learning of new information interferes with the recall of older information

interference where older information learned interferes with the recall of the more recent information

part of the brain that encodes new memories

the inability to encode new memories

the loss of all memories before the trauma

the strengthening of the connections between neurons through repeated firings

the smallest units of sound used in a language

the smallest unit of meaningful sound

the arrangement of words in a sentence to make sense

the process by which humans acquire the capacity to communicate in a language

stage where innate babies experiment with phonemes

stage where babies speak single words

stage where babies combine words into simple commands

the misapplication of grammar rules

theory that children are born with a language acquisition device

the part of the brain that allows rapid language learning

theory that the language we use might control or limit our thinking

the cognitive rules that we apply to stimuli from our environment

type of thought where our concepts are based on what we think is the most typical example of that particular concept

type of thought where our concepts are based on the mental images we create in our mind of the inside world

a rule that guarantees the right solution by using a formula

rule that is generally, but not always true that we can just to make a judgement in a situation

heuristics that involves judging a situation based on examples of similar situations that initially come to mind

heuristics that involves judging a situation based on how similar the aspects are to prototypes the person holds in his/her mind

the tendency to overestimate how accurate our judgements are

the bias where we make illogical conclusions to confirm our pre-existing beliefs

the tendency to maintain a belief even when the evidence we used to form the belief is contradicted

the tendency to fall into established thought patterns

type of rigidity that involves the inability to see a new use for an object

bias where we tend to look for evidence that confirms our beliefs and ignore evidence that contradicts what we think is true

the way a problem is presented

thinking pointed towards one solution

thinking that searches for multiple possible solutions to a question

Personality- is a pattern of thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that describe the way a person is and adapts to the world. 

 

Psychodynamic perspective emphasizes the fact that personality is primarily unconscious. Psychodynamic theorist believe behavior is only at the surface and to the have a good understanding of it one must explore the inner and outer meaning of the mind. 

·      Box #2 Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory 

In his theory, Freud believed that everything organized from sex (anything pleasurable). According the Freud the human sex drive was the main determinant of personality development. He felt psychological disorders, dreams, and all human behavior represent the conflict between the unconscious sexual drive and the demands of civilized human society. 

 

Freud developed psychoanalysis by studying those who suffer from hysteria. Hysteria is physical symptoms that have no physical cause. 

Freud spent long hours listening to women talk ab out their symptoms, until one day he finally understood that the hysterical symptoms came from the unconscious psychological conflicts.

                    -Fraulein Elisabeth von R. Case Study.

Eventually Freud used his hysterical symptoms as his understanding for dreams and all human behavior. He used the work he analyzed from his patients to describe personality. Freud described personality as an iceberg, existing mostly below the level of awareness. 

·      Box #3 Structure of Personality

Three parts of the iceberg:

1.    Id: the part the consist of the unconscious drives; the individual’s reservoir of sexual energy. 

2.    Ego: Deals with the reality of things happening in the world.

3.    Superego: The harsh internal judgement of our behavior; considers whether something is wrong or right.  Often reflected as the conscience. 

 

 

The ego uses different strategies, called defense mechanisms, to deal with anxiety. Defense mechanisms such as:

-        Repression             - Regression               - Displacement

-        Projection               - Denial                       - Sublimation

Two points about defense mechanisms

1.    They are unconscious

2.    When used in moderation or on a temporary basis, defense mechanisms are not necessarily unhealthy.

 

·      Box #4 Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development

Oral Stage- (First 18 month) pleasures center around the mouth. Chewing, sucking, and biting.

Anal Stage- (18-36 months) Children are experiencing toilet training, the child’s pleasures involve the anus and urethra and their functions. 

Phallic Stage- (3 to 6 years old) Word comes from the Latin word penis. Pleasure focuses on the genitals as children discover that self- stimulation enjoyable. 

The Phallic stage is important because it triggers Oedipus Complex, which is the boys despair to replace his father and enjoy the affections of his mother. 

Latency Period- (6 years old to puberty) Child sets aside all interest in sexuality.

Genital Stage- (adolescent to adulthood) Sexual awakening and gaining the capability to love and work. 

 

·      Box #5 Karen Horney, Carl Jung, and Alfred Adler

Karen Horney’s Sociocultural Approach: She discarded some of Freuds most popular ideas, calling them hypotheses. However, she did consider Freuds concept of penis envy. She pointed out that women might have penis envy because of the status society has for those who have one. She argued that sociocultural influences should be considered. Horney also believed that the need for security is the prime motive in human existence. 

Carl Jung Analytical Theory: Jung shared the same interest in the unconscious, just like Freud. Jung believed personality goes back to the start of humanity.

Jung say says that the collective unconscious contains archetypes, images and ideas that have meaning to a person. Jung used 3 archetypes to describe us as people.

1.    Anima- feminine side

2.    Animus- masculine side

3.    Persona- the mask we wear during social interactions

Alfred Adler Individual Psychology: In Alder’s individual psychology people are motivated by purpose and goals. In his approach, perfection, not pleasure, is the key motivator in human life. He thought that everyone strives for superiority by seeking to adapt, improve, and master the environment. 

He also believes that the birth order can also influence how successfully a person could strive for superiority. 

   https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zj0DEebVqJA

·      Box #6 Maslow’s v. Rogers’s Approach

Humanistic perspective stresses a person capacity for personal growth and positive human qualities. 

Abraham Maslow’s Approach: Believed we can learn the most about human personality by focusing on self-actualizers. Self-actualization is the motivation to develop ones’ full potential as a human being.  According to Maslow, a person at this level of their life will most likely tolerant other, have a nice sense of humor, and can pursue greater things. 

Carl Rogers’s Approach: Believed we were born as raw ingredients and we need the right conditions to thrive.  He states that we are all born with natural capacities for growth and fulfillment, it’s just up to us to unlock it. We have a “gut feeling” that allows us to know what is good and what is bad for ourselves. And finally, he believes that we are born with the need to be loved or accepted by those around us. Rogers explains unhappiness by:

·      Box #7 Trait Perspective 

Trait theories: personality consist of broad, enduring traits that lead to characteristic responses. 

The Five- Factor Model of Personality: five traits that mainly describe personality. 

1.   Neuroticism- Feeling negative emotion more often than positive emotion. 

2.   Extraversion- More likely than others to engage in social activity and experience gratitude. 

3.   Openness- Very openminded and highly creative.  

4.   Agreeableness- Helpful, softhearted, and trusting.

5.   Conscientiousness- Related to high school and college scores. These people tend to have discipline, are careful, and organized. 

·      Box #8 Personality Assessments

Self- Report Test: is a test that directly asks whether specific items describe their personality traits such as

-I am easily embarrassed

-I love to read

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI): widely used personality test. This test is used as a tool in hiring decisions. 

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): developed by Henry Murray and Christiana Morgan, it is designed to elicit stories that reveal something about an individual’s personality. The TAT consists of pictures and the test taker is asked to tell the story the picture is showing. 

 

What do you see?

·        Self-fulfilling prophecy is when expectations cause individuals to act in ways that serve to make expectations come true

·        Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobsen conducted a study on self-fulling prophecy in 1968. (late-bloomers)

Attribution

Is the process by which we come to understand the causes of the others’ behavior and form an impression of them as individuals

·        Attribution theory views people as motivated to discover the underlying causes of behavior as part of their effort to make sense of the behavior 

1.      Internal/ external

2.      Stable/ unstable

3.      Controllable/ uncontrollable

·        Fundamental attribution error observes overestimate the importance internal traits and underestimate the importance of external situations when they seek explanations of an actor’s behavior

·        False consensus effect overestimation of the degree to which everybody else thinks or acts the way we do 

The Self as a Social Object 

·        Self-objection- Apple of another person’s eye 

·        Stereotype threat- fear of being judged based on negative stereotype about his or her group

·        Social comparison- process by which we evaluate our thoughts, feeling, behaviors, and abilities in relation to other people

Attitudes guide actions

·        When the person’s attitude is strong

·        When the person shows a strong awareness of his or her attitudes and when the person rehearses and practices them 

·        When the person has a vested interest

Cognitive dissonance- concept developed by Festinger, is an individual’s psychological discomfort (dissonance) caused by two inconsistent thought (hypocrite) 

·        Experimenter by Festinger and J. Merrill Carlsmith asked college students to engage in boring tasks ($20, $1)

Effort justification means rationalizing the amount of effort we put into something

Self- perception theory, Daryl Bem’s take on how behavior influences attitudes 

·        Behaviors can cause attitudes, when we are questioned about our attitudes. We think back on our behaviors for information

Persuasion

Elements of persuasion, identified by Carl Hovland and colleagues include:

·        The communicator (source)

·        The medium

·        The target (audience)

·        The message

Elaboration likelihood model- two ways to persuade: central route and peripheral route

Persuasion techniques:

·        Door-in-the-face

·        Foot-in-the-door

Resisting persuasion:

·        Inoculation- like giving a vaccine, a weaker version of information

·        Egoism- giving to another person to gain reciprocity

Aggression

Aggressive behavior often results when areas such as the limbic system are stimulated by electric currents 

·        Frontal lobes implicated in aggression

·        Lower levels of serotonin have been linked to aggressive behavior 

·        Testosterone

 

·        John Dollard, frustration-aggression hypothesis 

·        Cultures of Honors- Dov Cohen

·        Medial violence 

·        Solomon Asch- experiment on conformity (which line is the same as the other one of the three), pressure to conform is strong

 

-        Informational Social Influence: influence other people have on us, because we want to be right 

-        Normative Social Influence: is the influence others have on us because we want them to like us 

1.      Obedience- Stanley Milligram Shock experiment 

Deindividuation- being part of a group reduces personal identity and erodes a sense of personal responsibility, give anonymity

Social contagion- imitative behavior involving the spread of actions, emotion, and ideas

Social facilitation- improvement in an individual’s performance because of the presence of others 

Social loafing- each person’s tendency to exert less effort in a group because of reduces accountability for individual

Risky shift- tendency for a group decision to be riskier than the average decision made by the individual group members 

Group polarization effect- the solidification and further strengthening of an individual’s position because of a group discussion or interaction

Groupthink- the impaired group decision making that occurs when making the right decision is less important than maintain group harmony

·        Irving Janis- decision making errors in history. Can be prevented if groups avoid isolation

Social identity- the way we define ourselves in terms of our group membership. You can identify with a country, social organization, religious group etc. 

·        Henry Tajfel Social Identity Theory- our social identities are a crucial part of our self-image and a valuable source of positive feelings about ourselves 

1.      In-group

2.      Out-group

Marianne Bertrand and Sendhil Mullainathan- resumes that were different stereo typically on how whiter or black their name sounded, but had the same qualifications in Boston and Chicago. White-sounding names were %50 more likely to be called for an interview 

Explicit vs. Implicit racism- consciously aware and other hidden at a deeper level 

·        Implicit racism- Implicit Associations Test is a computerized survey that assesses the ease with which a person can associate a black or white person with good things and bad things. Based on the idea that preexisting biases may make it easier to associate some social stimuli with positive rather than negative items 

Muzafer Sherif- Robber’s Cave experiment 

Eliot Aronson- jigsaw classroom, equal in ethnic composition and academic achievement

Close relationships 

Mere exposure effect- the phenomenon that the more we encounter someone or something, the more probable it is that we will start liking the person or thing even if we do not realize we have seen it before.

·        Consensual validation- people are attracted to others who are like them. Since they share similar values, our attitudes and behavior validate ours 

Social Exchange Theory- the view of social relationships as involving an exchange of good, the objective of which is to minimize costs and maximize benefits

Investment Model- examines the ways that commitment, investment, and the availability of attractive alternative partners predict satisfaction and stability in relationships