• Learning Disabilities: Definitions, signs, symptoms, inclusive strategies, and accommodations.

• Speech and Language Impairments: Definitions, signs, symptoms, inclusive strategies, and accommodations.

• Coexisting Conditions: Definition and how it affects student presentations and needs.

Dyscalculia is a learning disability that affects a person's ability to understand numbers, math concepts, and perform calculations. It impacts how individuals process numerical information and develop mathematical skills.

Signs and Symptoms

• Number Sense Difficulties

  • Place values

  • Number patterns

  • Estimation

  • Number relationships

• Calculation and Computation Difficulties

  • Basic math facts

  • Finger counting

  • Frequent errors in addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division

  • Difficulty with multi-step problems

• Organization and Sequencing Difficulties

  • Problems sequencing numbers correctly

  • Difficulty reading charts and graphs

  • Difficulty with multi-step directions

  • Difficulty organizing work or showing work

• Everyday Difficulties

  • Difficulty telling time

  • Challenges with counting money

  • Difficulty with estimating time

  • Difficulty understanding schedules and sequence of events

Learning Impacts

Students with dyscalculia tend to experience frustration, work avoidance, low confidence during math lessons, and increased anxiety during math lessons. While math may be extremely overwhelming, other portions of the day may also be difficult due to math being integrated into many other classroom activities.

Strategies and Supports

1. Concrete Visual Supports

   Utilize hands-on supports and experiences to help with understanding.

   Example: Manipulatives (base-ten blocks, counters, number lines), Hundreds-Tens-Ones Charts, Graphic Organizers for Multi-Step Problems

2. Breakdown Tasks

   Break each math task into smaller steps

   Example: Chunking of Assignments, Model each step (I do, We do, You do), Checklist

3. Build Number Sense

   Focus on number understanding and recognition first

   Example: Counting Activities, Real-Life Examples

4. Alternate Ways to Demonstrate

   Allow the students to utilize different ways to demonstrate their knowledge

   Example: Oral Responses, Drawing Models, Technology

5. Additional Processing Time

   Allow more time for students to process numerical information

   Example: Extended time for assignments/assessments, reduce the amount of problems (if applicable)

There are many other supports and strategies to utilize for Dyscalculia, but these are just a handful of ways to maximize the students abilities and learning.

What is oral expression?

Oral Expression in a special education setting refers to a student's ability to communicate thoughts, ideas, feelings, and information through spoken language.

It includes skills such as:

• Speaking clearly and using understandable speech

• Using correct grammar and sentence structure

• Expressing thoughts in an organized way

• Answering questions appropriately

• Participating in conversations and discussions

• Retelling events or stories

• Using age-appropriate vocabulary

• Following social communication rules (taking turns, staying on topic, making eye contact when appropriate)

• Examples in the Classroom

  A student with strong oral expression can:

  • Explain how they solved a math problem.

  • Share an opinion during a class discussion.

  • Ask for help when needed.

  • Give a presentation to the class.

  A student with oral expression difficulties may:

  • Use very short or incomplete sentences.

  • Have trouble finding the right words.

  • Struggle to explain thoughts clearly.

  • Answer questions with limited details.

  • Have difficulty participating in group discussions.

Signs and Symptoms of Oral Expression Difficulties

Communication Difficulties

• Difficulty expressing thoughts and ideas clearly

• Uses short, incomplete sentences

• Limited vocabulary compared to peers

• Frequently says "um," "thing," or "stuff" because they cannot find the correct word

• Difficulty explaining events in sequence

Academic Difficulties

• Trouble answering open-ended questions

• Difficulty participating in classroom discussions

• Struggles with oral presentations

• Has difficulty retelling stories or summarizing information

• Challenges with giving detailed responses

Social Difficulties

• Difficulty starting or maintaining conversations

• Trouble staying on topic during discussions

• Misunderstands conversational rules, such as taking turns when speaking

• May become frustrated when others do not understand them

Language Organization Difficulties

• Ideas seem disorganized when speaking

• Difficulty using age-appropriate grammar

• Trouble forming complete sentences

• Difficulty following multi-step directions and then explaining them

Classroom Example

A teacher asks, "What happened in the story?"

Typical Response:
"The main character helped his friend solve a problem by sharing his supplies."

Student with Oral Expression Difficulties:
"Boy... help friend... um... school."

Possible Supports

• Speech-language therapy

• Visual supports and graphic organizers

• Sentence frames and starters

• Modeling appropriate responses

• Small-group discussions

• Extended wait time for responses

Evaluating and Analyzing Differentiation Strategies to Support Students in the Classroom

Differentiation is an instructional approach that allows teachers to meet the diverse academic, social, emotional, and behavioral needs of all students. In inclusive classrooms, differentiation is especially important because students learn at different rates and possess varying strengths, interests, backgrounds, and abilities. Effective differentiation promotes equity, increases engagement, and improves academic outcomes.

Differentiating Content

Content differentiation involves modifying what students learn or how they access information.

Strategies

• Providing reading materials at different levels

• Using audiobooks and videos

• Offering visual supports such as charts, graphic organizers, and anchor charts

• Pre-teaching vocabulary

Analysis

Content differentiation ensures students can access grade-level standards regardless of their reading or language abilities. For example, a student with a reading disability may listen to an audiobook while following along with the text. This allows the student to focus on comprehension rather than decoding difficulties.

Evaluation

This strategy is highly effective because it removes barriers to learning while maintaining high expectations. However, teachers must carefully select materials that align with curriculum standards.

2. Differentiating Process

Process differentiation involves varying how students engage with and make sense of new information.

Strategies

• Small-group instruction

• Learning stations

• Peer tutoring

• Cooperative learning groups

• Guided practice

Analysis

Students benefit from different methods of instruction based on their learning styles and needs. For example, a teacher may provide additional guided instruction to struggling learners while allowing advanced students to work independently on enrichment activities.

Evaluation

Process differentiation promotes active learning and student engagement. Research shows that small-group instruction is particularly effective for students who require additional academic support.

3. Differentiating Product

Product differentiation allows students to demonstrate their understanding in various ways.

Strategies

• Presentations

• Written reports

• Posters

• Videos

• Models and projects

Analysis

Students have different strengths. Some communicate best through writing, while others excel through speaking or creating visual representations. Offering choices encourages creativity and ownership of learning.

Evaluation

This strategy increases motivation and allows students to showcase their knowledge in meaningful ways. However, teachers should use clear rubrics to ensure all products meet learning objectives.

4. Flexible Grouping

Flexible grouping allows students to work in different groups based on readiness, interest, or learning needs.

Strategies

• Ability-based groups

• Interest groups

• Mixed-ability groups

• Peer partnerships

Analysis

Grouping students strategically allows teachers to target instruction while promoting collaboration and peer support.

Evaluation

Flexible grouping can significantly improve academic achievement and social interaction. However, groups should be changed regularly to avoid labeling students.

5. Scaffolding

Scaffolding provides temporary support that helps students complete tasks they cannot yet accomplish independently.

Strategies

• Sentence starters

• Graphic organizers

• Modeling

• Think-alouds

• Guided notes

Analysis

Scaffolding aligns with Lev Vygotsky's concept of the Zone of Proximal Development, which suggests students learn best when support is provided just beyond their current skill level.

Evaluation

Scaffolding is particularly beneficial for students with disabilities, English learners, and struggling learners. As students gain confidence, supports can gradually be removed.

6. Technology Integration

Technology can support differentiation by providing personalized learning opportunities.

Strategies

• Speech-to-text software

• Text-to-speech programs

• Educational apps

• Adaptive learning platforms

Analysis

Technology helps students access content, communicate ideas, and practice skills at their own pace.

Evaluation

When used effectively, technology increases independence and engagement. However, teachers must ensure students receive instruction on how to use digital tools appropriately.

Supporting Diverse Learners

Differentiation is especially beneficial for:

• Students with disabilities

• English language learners (ELLs/EALs)

• Gifted and talented students

• Students with varying cultural and socioeconomic backgrounds

For example, in an inclusive science classroom, a teacher may provide visual diagrams for English learners, modified notes for students with learning disabilities, and extension activities for advanced learners while teaching the same concept.

Conclusion

Differentiation is an essential component of effective teaching because it recognizes that students learn in different ways. Strategies such as content, process, and product differentiation, flexible grouping, scaffolding, and technology integration help create an inclusive learning environment where all students can succeed. By implementing these approaches, teachers can increase engagement, improve academic performance, and ensure equitable access to learning opportunities for every student.

Definition of Dyslexia: Difficulties with phonological processing, reading fluency, and decoding written language, which affects how the brain maps sounds to letters.

Diagnostic Classification: Under the DSM-5 framework, this condition is legally recognized as a specific learning disorder. A formal diagnosis grants students federally recognized disability status, meaning they can receive formal accommodations.

Signs and symptoms: Mixing up words when speaking, such as for and of, they and them. Mixing up words and letters when writing, such as affect and effect, then and than. And mixing up letters such as b and d or m and w. Dyslexia does affect how the brain processes words, so it is also common that the student will jumble up their words or drop words from a sentence, such as saying "I want to the bathroom go" instead of saying, I want to go to the bathroom.

Coexisting Conditions: Generalized anxiety and dyslexia can go hand in hand because students have the cognitive understanding that they are not comprehending things as fast as their same-age peers. This is why accommodations for testing are so important. This way, the student does not get overwhelmed by how fast they are going compared to their same-age peers. I list these testing accommodations in the next paragraph.

Inclusive strategies and accommodations: Effective educational practices must move away from purely behavioral repetition and focus on reducing cognitive load so students can meaningfully engage with the material. For dyslexia, teachers should teach phonetic rules and root words while giving visuals and auditory options. As well as giving text-to-speech software and audiobooks to help students access materials without decoding struggles for all in-class activities and assignments. Some accommodations attached to an IEP for assessments could be extended time, reduced distractions for assessments, a word processor, and text-to-speech software. These accommodations allow students to stay in the general education classroom with supports. Students can also be pulled out of general education for reading classes with special educators. This way, they are getting the extra support they need in the areas they struggle in, but also getting to the social and academic structure of general education, such as in math and specials.

References

Han, W. (2025). Dyscalculia and dyslexia in school-aged children: comorbidity, support, and future prospects. Frontiers in Education, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2025.1515216

Potter, C. (2022). Dyslexia, Dysgraphia and Dyscalculia: A Response to Intervention Approach to Classification. Learning Disabilities - Neurobiology, Assessment, Clinical Features and Treatments. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101163

LD OnLine. (n.d.). Timeline of learning disabilities. https://www.ldonline.org/ld-topics/about-ld/timeline-learning-disabilities

Signs and Symptoms

• Limited vocabulary for age level

• Difficulty finding or recalling words

• Short, incomplete, or grammatically incorrect sentences

• Trouble organizing thoughts and expressing ideas

• Difficulty telling stories or explaining events

• Challenges participating in conversations

• Frustration when communicating

• Avoidance of speaking situations

• Difficulty answering open-ended questions

Inclusive Classroom Strategies

• Create a language-rich classroom environment

• Model appropriate language and vocabulary

• Use visual supports such as charts, pictures, graphic organizers

• Provide sentence-starters and word banks

• Allow additional time for the student to process and respond

• Encourage peer collaborations and structured discussions

• Use hands=on and multi-sensory learning activities

• Foster a supportive environment that values all communication attempts

Accommodations

• Simplify and clarify directions

• Break tasks into manageable steps

• Provide visual cues and graphic organizers

• Allow alternative ways to demonstrate learning

• Offer extended response time

• Permit oral responses when appropriate

• Provide small-group or individualized support

• Utilize assistive technology such as speech-to-text tools or AAC devices

Analysis and Evaluation of Differentiation Strategies

Differentiation is an important element in supporting students with expressive language disorders because it recognizes that communication challenges do not necessarily reflect a student's intelligence or ability to learn. Students may understand academic content but struggle to verbally explain their thinking. Effective differentiation removes communication barriers while maintaining high academic expectations, allowing students to fully participate in classroom learning.

Content Differentiation-

One highly effective strategy is content differentiation, which involves adapting how information is presented. Teachers can pre-teach key vocabulary, provide visual supports, and connect new concepts to students' prior knowledge. For example, when introducing a science lesson, a teacher might use photographs, diagrams, and vocabulary cards before beginning instruction. These supports strengthen comprehension and give students the language they need to engage in discussions and learning activities. Content differentiation is especially valuable because it increases access to grade-level curriculum without lowering academic rigor.

Process Differentiation-

Another important approach is process differentiation, which allows students to engage with content in ways that align with their strengths. Students with expressive language difficulties often benefit from hands-on learning, cooperative group activities, guided practice, and visual demonstrations. For instance, rather than requiring students to verbally explain a mathematical concept immediately, a teacher may allow them to manipulate objects, draw models, or discuss ideas with a partner before sharing with the class. These strategies reduce the pressure associated with verbal communication and promote deeper understanding of the content.

Product differentiation

Product differentiation is especially beneficial because it provides students with multiple ways to demonstrate understanding. Rather than relying solely on written assignments or oral presentations, students may create diagrams, videos, models, digital presentations, or visual projects to showcase their learning. For example, a student who struggles to explain the life cycle of a butterfly verbally may successfully demonstrate understanding by creating a labeled diagram or digital slideshow. This approach allows educators to assess content knowledge more accurately while reducing the impact of language deficits on academic performance.

Learning Environment Differentiation

The classroom environment itself can also be differentiated to encourage communication and participation. Predictable routines, visual schedules, small-group instruction, and positive teacher-student relationships help create a safe and supportive learning atmosphere. When students feel comfortable making mistakes, they are more likely to engage in conversations and practice expressive language skills. A structured environment also reduces anxiety, allowing students to focus more on learning and less on the challenges associated with communication.

Overall Analysis and Evaluation

Overall, the most effective support for students with expressive language disorders combines inclusive instructional practices, accommodations, and differentiated teaching strategies. These approaches not only improve access to academic content but also promote confidence, independence, and meaningful participation in the classroom. Successful differentiation is flexible and responsive, requiring ongoing observation, assessment, and collaboration among teachers, families, and speech-language pathologists. When implemented consistently, these strategies help students develop stronger communication skills while reaching their full academic potential.

Fluency Disorders: Interruption in the flow of speech production. Affects the rate and rhythm of words and phrases. Often recognized as stuttering (repeating and or prolonging sounds in words).

Types of fluency disorders (3):

Stuttering- A condition classified as an individual expressing repetitious consonant or vowel sounds, especially at the beginning of words. Prolongations, hesitations, interjections, and verbal obstacles are also viewed as manifestations of stuttering. Developmental stuttering is considered a disorder in childhood. Its onset is typically between the ages of 2 and 4. Children who stutter usually recover spontaneously. Others may experience persistent stuttering. Stuttering is found to be more common among males than females, and it occurs more frequently among twins. The causes of stuttering remain obscure. Although, stuttering has been examined extensively, and it is 3 out of 4 times more likely for a family member of a person who stutters to stutter than a family member of a person who does not stutter. Stuttering is theorized to be a result of a genes, environmental factors conducive to the development of the disorder, or a combination of heredity and environmental factors. Stuttering is considered situational. It is related to the setting or circumstances of speech. An individual may be more prone to stuttering when talking to familiar people whose opinions matter and in situations such as being called on during class to answer a question in front of peers. Most people who stutter are fluent about 90% of the time. A child with a fluency disorder may not stutter when singing, reciting poems, pledges, class rules, etc. (in unison), or talking to a pet. Reactions and expectations of parental figures, teachers, mentors, coaches, and peers are direct influential factors that effect a child's personal and communicative development.

Cluttering- A type of fluency disorder characterized by excessive speech rate, repetitions, extra sounds, mispronounced sounds, and poor or absent use of pauses. Data is limited for determining the age of onset cluttering. However, it appears to be similar to that of stuttering (approximately 33 months old). Often times, children are not diagnosed with cluttering until at least 8 years of age or adolescence into early adulthood. People who clutter may experience cognitive and or behavioral responses including communication avoidance, anxiety, and negative connotations associated with communicative efforts. There is limited research available identifying the origin of cluttering.

Acquired Fluency Disorder- Stuttering or fluency disruptions arising later on in life. Usually acquired fluency disorders are the result of neurological disturbances like a traumatic brain injury, stroke, or psychological trauma.

Accommodations/Educational Approaches:

-Offering additional formats for oral presentations (voice overs, pre-recorded presentations, etc.).

-Extended time

-Providing "wait time" (to reduce anxiety-ridden responses as a result of feeling rushed and pressured to answer immediately).

-Voluntary responses rather than mandatory.

-Exempt student from reading aloud. Offer silent reading opportunities.

-Assistive technology

-SLP collaboration

-Preferential seating (close to supportive peers and or teacher).

-Model patience

Works Cited:

William L. Heward. (2013). Exceptional children: An introduction to special education (10th ed.). Pearson.

Psychology Today. (n.d.). Childhood-onset fluency disorder. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/conditions/childhood-onset-fluency-disorder

American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (n.d.). Stuttering, cluttering, and fluency [Practice Portal]. https://www.asha.org/practice-portal/clinical-topics/fluency-disorders/

National Stuttering Association. (n.d.). Individualized Education Plan (IEP) information. National Stuttering Association. https://www.westutter.org/post/individualized-education-plan-iep-information

^{Dysgraphia is a specific learning disability that affects a person's ability to write. It can impact handwriting, spelling, sentence construction, and the organization of ideas on paper. Students with dysgraphia often know what they want to say but struggle to express their thoughts in writing due to difficulties with fine motor skills, language processing, or both. Dysgraphia is not related to intelligence, and students with dysgraphia can be highly capable learners when provided with appropriate support.}

^{Signs and Symptoms}

^{Handwriting Difficulties}

• ^{Poor or illegible handwriting}

• ^{Inconsistent letter size and spacing}

• ^{Difficulty forming letters and numbers}

• ^{Slow, laborious writing}

• ^{Awkward pencil grip}

^{Written Expression Difficulties}

• ^{Frequent spelling errors}

• ^{Difficulty organizing ideas on paper}

• ^{Incomplete sentences or paragraphs}

• ^{Omitting words or letters while writing}

• ^{Trouble taking notes or copying text}

^{Physical Signs}

• ^{Hand fatigue or cramping}

• ^{Complaints of pain during writing tasks}

• ^{Avoidance of writing activities}

^{Classroom Impact}

^{Dysgraphia can significantly affect a student's academic performance and participation in classroom activities.}

^{Academic Challenges}

• ^{Difficulty completing written assignments}

• ^{Lower performance on tests requiring written responses}

• ^{Challenges with note-taking}

• ^{Reduced writing fluency and productivity}

^{Social and Emotional Impact}

• ^{Frustration with writing tasks}

• ^{Reduced self-confidence}

• ^{Anxiety about sharing written work}

• ^{Avoidance of classroom participation involving writing}

^{Despite these challenges, students often demonstrate strong understanding when allowed to respond verbally or through alternative formats.}

^{Coexisting Conditions}

^{Dysgraphia frequently occurs alongside other learning and developmental differences, including:}

• ^Dyslexia

• ^{Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder}

• ^{Speech and language impairments}

• ^{Developmental coordination difficulties}

• ^{Executive functioning challenges}

^{When conditions coexist, students may require multiple forms of support to address both writing difficulties and other learning needs.}

^{Supporting Students with Dysgraphia}

^{Instructional Strategies}

• ^{Teach handwriting and writing skills explicitly}

• ^{Break writing tasks into manageable steps}

• ^{Use graphic organizers to plan writing}

• ^{Provide models and examples of completed work}

• ^{Allow verbal brainstorming before writing}

^{Accommodations}

• ^{Extra time for assignments and tests}

• ^{Reduced copying requirements}

• ^{Access to typed notes or outlines}

• ^{Speech-to-text technology}

• ^{Keyboarding or typing options}

• ^{Alternative methods of demonstrating learning}

^{Inclusive Practices}

• ^{Focus grading on content rather than handwriting quality}

• ^{Encourage student strengths and creativity}

• ^{Foster a supportive and nonjudgmental classroom environment}

^{Classroom Example/Scenario}

^{Scenario: A fourth-grade student named Ethan has dysgraphia. During writing assignments, he struggles to form letters correctly and often writes only a few sentences despite having many ideas. His teacher notices that Ethan can explain concepts clearly during class discussions but becomes frustrated when asked to write.}

^{Support Provided:}

• ^{Ethan uses a graphic organizer to organize his ideas.}

• ^{He is allowed to type assignments on a Chromebook.}

• ^{Speech-to-text software helps him draft longer responses.}

• ^{The teacher grades his work based on content and understanding rather than handwriting.}

^{Outcome: With these supports, Ethan participates more confidently, completes assignments successfully, and demonstrates his knowledge more accurately.}

^{Key Takeaway}

^{Dysgraphia is a learning disability that affects writing but does not reflect a student's intelligence or potential. Students with dysgraphia may struggle with handwriting, spelling, and written expression, yet they often possess strong verbal abilities and valuable ideas. Through inclusive teaching practices, accommodations, assistive technology, and individualized support, educators can help students overcome barriers to writing and achieve academic success. Creating an inclusive classroom ensures that all students have equitable opportunities to demonstrate their learning and strengths.}

^References

^{International Dyslexia Association. (2024). Understanding dysgraphia. Retrieved from International Dyslexia Association}

^{National Center for Learning Disabilities. (2024). Specific learning disabilities. Retrieved from National Center for Learning Disabilities}

^{Understood.org. (2024). Dysgraphia: What you need to know.}

^{American Psychiatric Association. (2022). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: Author.}

^{Center for Parent Information and Resources. (2024). Specific learning disabilities.}

A specific learning disability in written expression affects a student’s ability to communicate thoughts through writing. Under IDEA, a specific learning disability can affect the use of spoken or written language and may show up in writing, spelling, or other academic skills. For written expression, the student may understand the content but struggle to plan, organize, spell, form sentences, use grammar, write fluently, or get ideas onto paper.

Key Features / Signs

Students with SLD in written expression may:

• Have trouble starting writing assignments

• Struggle to organize ideas in a logical order

• Write very short or incomplete responses

• Know the answer orally but struggle to write it down

• Take much longer than peers to complete written work

• Have difficulty with spelling, punctuation, grammar, or sentence structure

• Lose track of their ideas while writing

• Avoid writing tasks or become frustrated during writing

• Struggle to expand ideas into complete sentences or paragraphs

• Have difficulty revising and editing their own work

Classroom Impact

Written expression affects more than language arts. A student may understand a science concept, social studies topic, or math explanation but have difficulty showing that understanding in writing. This can make the student appear unprepared, careless, or unmotivated, even when they know the material. Writing tasks can also affect confidence, participation, work completion, and willingness to attempt longer assignments.

Coexisting Conditions

SLD in written expression can coexist with other learning or developmental needs, including dyslexia, ADHD, language disorders, anxiety, and sometimes dysgraphia. Dysgraphia may affect handwriting, spelling, or the physical act of writing, while written expression focuses more on communicating ideas through writing, including planning, organization, sentence structure, grammar, and written fluency.

When needs overlap, the student may need support with writing, language organization, executive functioning, confidence, and emotional regulation. Teachers should avoid assuming the student is lazy or refusing. Instead, they should look closely at which part of the writing process is creating the biggest barrier.

Supporting Students with SLD in Written Expression

Instructional Strategies

Teachers can support written expression by teaching the writing process in smaller, clearer steps instead of expecting the student to complete the whole task independently at once.

Planning and organizing ideas:

• Let students talk through ideas before writing

• Use brainstorming webs or graphic organizers

• Pre-teach important vocabulary

• Provide examples of completed work

• Break the assignment into steps: brainstorm → organize ideas → draft → revise → edit

Drafting and building written responses:

• Provide sentence starters, paragraph frames, or writing templates

• Model how to turn an idea into a complete sentence or paragraph

• Give checklists for staying on topic and adding details

• Provide feedback during the process, not only after the final product

• Allow flexible ways to show understanding when writing is not the main skill being assessed

Revising, editing, and finishing work:

• Use a revision checklist with one or two focus areas at a time

• Help the student check whether their writing answers the prompt

• Focus editing on the target skill instead of correcting every error at once

• Allow students to revise with teacher or peer support

Accommodations / Assistive Technology

• Extended time for written assignments and tests

• Typing or speech-to-text when handwriting slows down written output

• Word prediction, spell-check, or grammar-check tools

• Reduced copying from the board

• Teacher-provided notes or guided notes

• Graphic organizers, outlines, or writing templates

• Oral responses when the goal is content knowledge, not writing skill

• Shortened writing assignments when appropriate

• Rubrics that focus on the target skill instead of marking every spelling or grammar error

  
  

Social-Emotional Support

• Give encouragement during the writing process, not just after the final product

• Avoid calling on the student to share writing without warning

• Offer private check-ins when a writing task seems overwhelming

• Focus on growth and effort instead of only accuracy

• Build on the student’s strengths, such as oral explanation, creativity, drawing, technology, or hands-on learning

• Watch for avoidance, frustration, or anxiety as signs that the writing task may need more support

Classroom Example

A student may be able to explain an answer out loud during class discussion but only write one incomplete sentence on paper. This does not necessarily mean the student does not understand the lesson. The barrier may be organizing ideas, spelling words, holding thoughts in working memory, or turning spoken language into written language.

Support could include letting the student talk through their answer first, using a graphic organizer, providing sentence frames, allowing speech-to-text, and giving extra time. The teacher might also grade the response mainly on content understanding if writing mechanics are not the main goal of the assignment.

Key Takeaway

Students with SLD in written expression often need support with the process of writing, not lowered academic expectations. With explicit instruction, assistive technology, visual supports, and flexible response options, students can access grade-level learning and communicate their understanding more successfully.

References

Learning Disabilities Association of America. (n.d.). How teachers can help students with learning disabilities. https://ldaamerica.org/how-teachers-can-help-students-with-learning-disabilities/

U.S. Department of Education. (2018). Sec. 300.8(c)(10) Specific learning disability. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. https://sites.ed.gov/idea/regs/b/a/300.8/c/10/

Understood. (2024, April 5). Classroom accommodations for written expression disorder.  https://www.understood.org/en/articles/classroom-accommodations-written-expression-disorder

Specific Learning Disability (SLD) in mathematical problem solving (MPS) is a disability that impacts a student’s ability to understand, analyze, organize, and solve mathematical problems, particularly word problems and multi-step mathematical reasoning tasks. Under IDEA, mathematics problem solving is recognized as a distinct area of SLD separate from mathematics calculation.

How is SLD in MPS different from Dyscalculia?

Dyscalculia is considered a neurodevelopmental disorder affecting numerical processing and quantity understanding. SLD in MPS is broader and may involve language, reasoning, memory, organization, and strategy use rather than foundational number sense alone. A student can:

• Have dyscalculia

• Have SLD in MPS

• Or have both simultaneously

Signs & Symptoms of SLD in MPS

Academically, students with an SLD in MPS often have:

• Difficulty understanding word problems

• Trouble identifying important information

• Difficulty determining which operation to use

• Problems organizing multi-step solutions

• Difficulty explaining mathematical reasoning

• Inconsistent performance on math tasks

• Trouble generalizing learned strategies

• Difficulty transferring skills to new situations

Cognitively & Functionally, students with an SLD in MPS often display:

• Weak working memory

• Difficulty sequencing steps

• Problems with organization and planning

• Cognitive overload during complex tasks

• Slow processing speed during problem solving

Behaviorally & Emotionally students with an SLD in MPS often present with:

• Math avoidance

• Frustration or shutdown during problem solving

• Anxiety during multi-step tasks

• Low confidence in math ability

• Learned helplessness

  
  

Definition

An articulation disorder is a speech disorder in which a student has difficulty producing specific speech sounds correctly. These difficulties occur because the student cannot accurately position or coordinate the lips, tongue, teeth, jaw, or palate to form sounds. Articulation disorders affect speech clarity (intelligibility) but do not necessarily affect language comprehension or intelligence.

Common Characteristics and Symptoms

Students with articulation disorders may:

• Substitute one sound for another (e.g., saying "wabbit" instead of "rabbit")

• Omit sounds from words (e.g., saying "ca" instead of "cat")

• Distort sounds, causing unclear pronunciation

• Add extra sounds to words

• Have difficulty being understood by peers and adults

• Become frustrated when communicating

• Avoid speaking in class or participating in discussions

• Demonstrate reduced confidence in social interactions

Types of Articulation Errors

Error TypeDescriptionExampleSubstitutionReplacing one sound with another"wed" for "red"OmissionLeaving out a sound"nana" for "banana"DistortionProducing an unfamiliar soundSlurred /s/ soundAdditionAdding an extra sound"buhlack" for "black"

Educational Impact

Articulation disorders can affect:

Academic Performance

• Oral presentations

• Reading aloud

• Class participation

• Demonstrating knowledge verbally

Social Development

• Peer relationships

• Self-esteem

• Confidence in communication

• Group interactions

Emotional Well-Being

• Anxiety when speaking

• Embarrassment about speech differences

• Withdrawal from classroom discussions

Inclusive Classroom Strategies

Instructional Supports

• Model correct pronunciation naturally.

• Encourage communication without excessive correction.

• Provide opportunities for structured speaking practice.

• Use visual and auditory supports.

• Create a supportive classroom environment.

Teacher Practices

• Listen patiently.

• Focus on the message rather than the error.

• Reinforce communication attempts positively.

• Collaborate with the speech-language pathologist (SLP).

• Avoid asking students to repeatedly say words correctly in front of peers.

Accommodations

• Allow extra time for verbal responses.

• Provide alternative methods of participation.

• Permit recorded presentations when appropriate.

• Use visual aids during oral presentations.

• Offer small-group presentation opportunities before whole-class presentations.

• Incorporate assistive technology when needed.

Assessment Considerations

Teachers should:

• Evaluate content knowledge separately from speech production.

• Allow multiple ways for students to demonstrate learning.

• Use observational data and classroom performance.

• Collaborate with speech-language professionals to monitor progress.

Evidence-Based Interventions

Speech-language pathologists often use:

• Articulation therapy

• Phonetic placement techniques

• Modeling and imitation exercises

• Auditory discrimination training

• Multisensory speech activities

• Repetitive practice with feedback

Example Classroom Scenario

A fourth-grade student consistently pronounces the /r/ sound as /w/, saying "wain" instead of "rain." During classroom discussions, the teacher acknowledges the student's ideas rather than correcting every speech error. The teacher collaborates with the speech-language pathologist to reinforce targeted sounds during reading activities while maintaining a supportive environment that encourages participation and confidence.

Key Takeaway

Articulation disorders primarily affect how speech sounds are produced, not a student's intelligence or ability to learn. With early intervention, speech therapy, classroom accommodations, and positive teacher support, students can improve speech intelligibility and fully participate in academic and social activities.

Reading comprehension difficulties occur when a student struggles to understand, interpret, remember, or apply information from text. A student may be able to decode words accurately but still have difficulty making meaning from what they read. This can affect performance across all subjects because students are expected to read directions, textbooks, word problems, articles, and assignments independently.

Reading comprehension difficulties may fall under a Specific Learning Disability, which IDEA describes as a disorder involving one or more psychological processes used in understanding or using language, including difficulties with reading, writing, spelling, listening, thinking, or speaking.

Common Signs and Symptoms

Students with reading comprehension difficulties may:

• Read the words correctly, but do not understand the meaning

• Have trouble identifying the main idea

• Struggle to remember details from a passage

• Have difficulty making inferences

• Misunderstand vocabulary, figurative language, or academic language

• Struggle to summarize what they read

• Have difficulty answering questions after reading

• Become overwhelmed by long passages or dense textbooks

• Have trouble connecting new information to prior knowledge

• Perform better when information is read aloud or discussed verbally

Something to remember: this student may not look like a struggling reader at first, because they may read aloud fluently. The difficulty often shows up when they have to explain, summarize, analyze, or apply the information.

How It Affects Student Learning

Reading comprehension impacts more than English/Language Arts. Students may struggle with:

Science: understanding vocabulary-heavy passages, lab directions, or cause/effect relationships.
Social Studies: understanding timelines, historical events, primary sources, or abstract concepts.
Math: understanding word problems and multi-step directions.
ELA: analyzing theme, character motivation, author’s purpose, figurative language, and evidence.

Reading Rockets explains that comprehension is the purpose of reading because students need to absorb, analyze, make sense of, and connect with what they read.

Inclusive Classroom Strategies

Before Reading

Use these strategies to prepare the student before they read:

• Preview key vocabulary

• Activate prior knowledge with a KWL chart or discussion

• Show visuals, pictures, short videos, or real-world examples

• Preview headings, bold words, captions, and questions

• Give a short purpose for reading: “As you read, look for why the character changed.”

IRIS recommends activating prior knowledge, pre-teaching vocabulary, and helping students make predictions before reading.

During Reading

Use these strategies while the student is reading:

• Chunk the text into smaller sections

• Stop after each section to check understanding

• Use think-aloud modeling: “I’m noticing that this detail tells me…”

• Teach students to annotate or highlight key information

• Use graphic organizers for main idea/details, cause/effect, sequence, compare/contrast

• Ask guiding questions throughout the reading

• Allow partner reading or teacher-supported reading

Reading Rockets identifies research-based comprehension strategies such as monitoring comprehension, using metacognition, using graphic organizers, and answering questions.

After Reading

Use these strategies to help the student process the text:

• Ask the student to summarize in their own words

• Use sentence stems: “The main idea is…” “One detail that supports this is…”

• Have students draw or map what happened

• Use exit tickets with one clear comprehension question

• Let students discuss the reading before writing answers

• Connect the text to real-life examples or previously learned content

IRIS recommends teaching comprehension strategies such as summarizing, predicting, answering questions, making inferences, and using graphic organizers.

Differentiation Strategies

For content, teachers can provide audio versions, visuals, simplified directions, vocabulary previews, or shorter chunks of text.

For process, teachers can use guided reading, small-group instruction, think-alouds, peer discussion, graphic organizers, and comprehension checks.

For product, students can show understanding through oral responses, drawings, graphic organizers, matching activities, short written responses, or projects instead of only long written answers.

This connects well to differentiated instruction because IRIS explains that teachers can differentiate content, process, and product to support student readiness, interests, and learning needs.

Accommodations

Possible accommodations for a student with reading comprehension difficulties include:

• Extended time for reading assignments and tests

• Text-to-speech or audiobooks

• Directions read aloud

• Chunked reading passages

• Reduced reading load when appropriate

• Graphic organizers

• Vocabulary banks

• Guided notes

• Frequent comprehension checks

• Preferential seating near instruction

• Small-group testing or a quiet testing environment

• Oral response options when the goal is comprehension, not writing

• Access to highlighted or annotated text

• Reworded questions or simplified directions, without changing the academic standard

Coexisting Conditions

Reading comprehension difficulties may coexist with other disabilities or learning needs. For example, a student may also have ADHD, dyslexia, language impairment, executive functioning difficulties, anxiety, or working memory challenges.

A student with ADHD may lose focus while reading and miss important details.
A student with dyslexia may use so much energy decoding words that less mental energy is available for comprehension.
A student with a speech or language impairment may struggle with vocabulary, sentence structure, background knowledge, or higher-level language skills needed to understand text. ASHA notes that children with spoken language disorders often have difficulty learning to read and write, and students with reading/writing problems may also struggle with higher-order spoken language skills.

Because of this, teachers should not assume all comprehension problems come from the same cause. The student’s supports should match the specific reason they are struggling.

Classroom Example
A student can read a science passage out loud with few errors, but cannot explain the main idea or answer questions about cause and effect.

Support:
The teacher previews vocabulary, chunks the passage into smaller sections, uses a cause/effect graphic organizer, pauses for comprehension checks, and allows the student to discuss answers with a partner before writing.

References:

IRIS | Page 8: Reading Comprehension. (n.d.). Iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu. https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/rti03/cresource/q3/p08/

‌

Adler, C. R. (2023). Seven strategies to teach students text comprehension. Reading Rockets. https://www.readingrockets.org/topics/comprehension/articles/seven-strategies-teach-students-text-comprehension

‌

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). (2026). U.S. Department of Education. https://www.ed.gov/laws-and-policy/individuals-disabilities/individuals-disabilities-education-act-idea

‌

Instruction

• Model step-by-step problem-solving processes

• Use "think-alouds" to demonstrate reasoning rather than leaving it implied

• Teach students how to identify relevant information (ex. "know/need to know" charts, "notice/wonder" table)

• Explicitly teach problem-solving vocabulary

Visual Supports

• Use graphic organizers

• Color code operations, steps, and logic

• Use visual models and diagrams

• Use visual reference posters or displays that capture key concepts, vocabulary, and problem solving steps ("anchor charts")

• Worked examples

UDL-Aligned Supports include:

• Multiple Means of Engagement: student choice in solving problems, collaborative problem solving, real-world math applications, gamified activities

• Multiple Means of Representation: visuals & manipulatives, audio supports, chunked directions, video modeling

• Multiple Means of Action & Expression: verbal explanations, drawing or modeling solutions, digital tools, collaborative demonstrations

Scaffolded Supports

• Checklists

• Sentence starters

• Problem-solving templates

• CRA Instruction: Concrete ("doing," hands-on with manipulatives); Representational ("seeing," visual models, pictures)-Abstract ("symbols," numbers, traditional equations)

Inclusive Practices

• Small-group instruction

• Peer collaboration

• Flexible pacing

• Frequent formative feedback

• Culturally relevant examples

Common Accommodations for SLD in MPS

Classroom Accommodations

• Extended time

• Reduced language complexity in word problems

• Read-aloud supports

• Calculator access when computation is not the focus

• Formula/reference sheets, anchor charts

• Graphic organizers

• Highlighted key information

• Chunked assignments

Instructional Accommodations

• Frequent teacher check-ins

• Repeated modeling

• Small-group instruction

• Alternative response formats

Assessment Accommodations

• Oral responses

• Reduced distractions

• Clarified directions

• Alternative assessment methods

• Use of manipulatives during assessments

• Use of calculator during assessments when computation is not the focus

Technology Supports

• Speech-to-text

• Text-to-speech

• Virtual manipulatives

• Math-solving apps

• Digital graphic organizers

Common Co-existing Conditions for Students with an SLD in MPS

Students with SLD in MPS frequently experience co-existing conditions that impact working memory, executive function, reading comprehension, and behavioral health. These include:

1. ADHD: difficulty sustaining attention, executive functioning deficits, and impulsivity during problem solving

2. Dyslexia: difficulty reading and comprehending word problems, and trouble decoding mathematical vocabulary

3. Language Disorders: difficulty understanding verbal directions, and expressive or receptive language difficulties

4. Working Memory Deficits: difficulty holding information while solving problems, and trouble remembering multi-step procedures

5. Anxiety: math anxiety, avoidance behaviors, reduced working memory capacity under stress

Dyscalculia: some students experience both foundational number sense deficits AND higher-level reasoning/problem-solving difficulties

References:

1. British Dyslexia Association. (n.d.). How is dyscalculia different from other maths learning difficulties? https://www.bdadyslexia.org.uk/dyscalculia/how-can-i-identify-dyscalculia/how-is-dyscalculia-different-from-other-maths-learning-difficulties

2. CAST. (2024). Universal Design for Learning guidelines version 3.0. https://udlguidelines.cast.org

3. Dowker, A. (2024). Developmental dyscalculia in relation to individual differences. Brain Sciences, 14(4), 345. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11201520/

4. Hechinger Report. (2023). Disabilities in math affect many students but get little attention. https://hechingerreport.org/disabilities-in-math-affect-many-students-but-get-little-attention/

5. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 20 U.S.C. § 1400 (2004). https://sites.ed.gov/idea/

6. Kaufmann, L., Wood, G., Rubinsten, O., & Henik, A. (2012). Meta-analyses of developmental fMRI studies investigating typical and atypical trajectories of number processing and calculation. Developmental Neuropsychology, 36(6), 763–787. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3514770/

7. Learning Disabilities Association of America. (n.d.). What is dyscalculia? https://ldaamerica.org/what-is-dyscalculia/

8. National Association of School Psychologists. (2020). Best practices in assessing culturally and linguistically diverse students. https://www.nasponline.org

9. National Center on Intensive Intervention. (n.d.). Mathematics intervention tools chart. https://intensiveintervention.org

10. Soares, N., Evans, T., Patel, D. R., & Soares, D. (2018). Specific learning disability in mathematics: A comprehensive review. Translational Pediatrics, 7(1), 48–62. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5803013/

11. Undivided. (2025, June 4). IEP and 504 accommodations for specific learning disabilities (SLD)s. https://undivided.io/resources/iep-and-504-accommodations-for-specific-learning-disabilities-sld-s-3072

12. Understood.org. (n.d.). What is dyscalculia? https://www.understood.org/en/articles/what-is-dyscalculia

13. Wilson, A. J., & Waldie, K. E. (2015). Dyscalculia and dyslexia in adults: Cognitive bases of comorbidity. Learning and Individual Differences, 37, 118–132. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1041608014002179

A reading fluency disability is a difficulty with reading accurately, quickly, and with appropriate expression. Students with reading fluency challenges often struggle to recognize words automatically, causing them to read slowly, hesitate frequently, or read in a choppy manner. Reading fluency is an essential component of reading because it connects word recognition to reading comprehension.

Reading fluency difficulties are often associated with specific learning disabilities such as Dyslexia, but they can also occur independently.

Signs and Symptoms of Reading Fluency Difficulties

• Slow reading rate compared to peers

• Frequent pauses, hesitations, or word-by-word reading

• Difficulty decoding unfamiliar words

• Omitting, substituting, or misreading words

• Limited reading expression (monotone reading)

• Difficulty understanding text because so much effort is spent on decoding words

• Trouble keeping up with classroom reading assignments

Inclusive Strategies for Supporting Students with Reading Fluency Disabilities

1. Repeated Reading

Provide opportunities for students to read the same passage multiple times until they become more fluent.

Benefits:

• Improves reading speed

• Increases accuracy

• Builds confidence

2. Guided Oral Reading

Read alongside the student and provide immediate feedback on pronunciation and expression.

Examples:

• Choral reading

• Echo reading

• Partner reading

3. Model Fluent Reading

Teachers can demonstrate appropriate pacing, expression, and phrasing while reading aloud.

4. Use Multisensory Instruction

Incorporate visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learning methods.

Examples:

• Highlighting text

• Tracing words

• Listening while following along in text

5. Build Vocabulary

Pre-teach unfamiliar words before reading assignments to reduce decoding demands.

6. Small-Group Instruction

Provide targeted intervention in a supportive setting where students receive individualized feedback.

7. Assistive Technology

Use tools that support reading development, such as:

• Text-to-speech software

• Audiobooks

• Digital reading platforms with read-aloud features

Classroom Accommodations

Instructional Accommodations

• Provide extra time for reading assignments

• Reduce the amount of required reading when appropriate

• Offer reading materials at the student's instructional level

• Allow previewing of texts before lessons

• Provide copies of notes and study guides

Assessment Accommodations

• Extended testing time

• Oral administration of assessments

• Use of audiobooks during testing (when appropriate)

• Separate setting for assessments

• Alternative ways to demonstrate understanding

Classroom Environment Accommodations

• Avoid requiring students to read aloud unexpectedly

• Offer opportunities to practice reading privately before public reading

• Create a supportive, nonjudgmental classroom climate

• Pair students strategically for reading activities

Best Practices for Inclusion

Effective inclusion means providing access to grade-level curriculum while addressing individual learning needs. Teachers can:

• Use differentiated instruction

• Implement Universal Design for Learning (UDL)

• Collaborate with reading specialists and special educators

• Monitor progress regularly

• Foster peer support and cooperative learning opportunities

When these strategies and accommodations are combined, students with reading fluency disabilities can improve reading performance, participate meaningfully in the general education classroom, and develop greater confidence as readers.