UDAA2214 GROUP 3 : Human intervention in farm animal reproduction (From lab to farm) by Jean K

FUNTASTICS SCIENCE on HORSE.. Neigh.. neigh!!!

kwongpj — 2020-08-17 14:18:27 UTC

(Before you start click on this audio file to give you a funtastic experience while reading through the blog!)

IN VITRO PRODUCTION OF EMBRYOS FOR HORSE (IVP EMBRYOS)

wilson12121477 — 2020-08-20 03:58:09 UTC

Generally, there are two ways to collect the oocytes from the mares which are either from the live mares or from the excised ovaries which are obtained from slaughterhouse. The collection of oocytes from live mare is more easier compared to the collection of oocytes from excised ovaries due to the handling of the oocytes obtained from the live mare is only having few steps while the oocytes obtained from excised ovaries need to undergo several steps in order to proceed for fertilization. Thus, the veterinarian would like to choosing the way of obtaining the oocytes from live mare to save more time on conducting the oocytes handling procedures.

For the collection of oocytes from live mares, there are two major approaches that recover the oocytes which are recovery of the oocytes that matured in-vivo from pre-ovulatory follicle after the hCG or a GnRH analogue stimulation, and the recovery of the immature oocytes that obtained from all visible follicles that occur on the ovary and this approach will be followed by the in vitro maturation (Hinrichs, 2010).

In terms of the aspiration of pre-ovulatory follicle, it is used to obtain the oocytes for transfer of oocyte. It has the recovery rates of the oocytes from the follicles are about 65 to 80%. There is expand and loosen of the oocyte-cumulus complex occurs at the follicle wall and prepare for the ovulation process. This approach makes the aspiration of oocytes become more easier to recover the pre-ovulatory follicle by placing a needle through the flank of the mare while the ovary of the mare is being manipulated per rectum due to the large size of pre-ovulatory follicle (Hinrichs, 2010).

In terms of the aspiration of immature oocytes, the immature oocytes are obtained from the follicles that presence in the ovaries. The immature oocytes obtained are used for in vitro production on embryo. Some follicles are undergoing atresia and some are growing. The oocytes inside the follicles are immature. The recovery rates for this approach is relatively low in about 30% and below. This may due to the oocyte of the equine are attached close and strong to the wall of follicle. The small immature follicles will have a higher recovery rates than the large immature follicles which the small follicles having the small surface area attached to the follicle wall which the oocytes are likely to dislodge during the aspiration process. Sometimes the high recovery rates can be obtained from the immature follicles in about 43 to 58% by including the step of flushing each of the follicle for eight times via the double-lumen aspiration needle with the separate inflow and outflow channels. There is a high amount of aspirated follicles of the mean in about 17 for a mare and the recovery rate of mean in about 10 immature oocytes per mare which makes the transvaginal ultrasound‐guided follicle aspiration, TVA methods have been reviewed (Hinrichs, 2010).

After the collection of the oocytes, the oocytes will be holded overnight with the holding medium in the temperature of approximately 22°C which is cultured for the in vitro maturation. After the holding of oocytes for about 17 to 24 hours, the oocytes can be subjected to the intracytoplasmic sperm injection, ICSI. The sperm injection will be perform by using the Piezo drill. The embryo culture will be undergo as the vitrified-warmed oocytes. On day 7, the cultured embryos may start to develop and the assessment of the embryos will be conducted to see the growth and development condition of the embryos. The embryo will then can be transfer to the mare recipient by artificial insemination (Angel, et al., 2020).

References:
Angel, D., Canesin, H.S., Brom-de-Luna, J.G., Morado, S., Dalvit, G., Gomez, D., Posada, N., Pascottini, O.B., Urrego, R., Hinrichs, K. and Velez, I.C., 2020. Embryo development after vitrification of immature and in vitro-matured equine oocytes. Cryobiology.

Hinrichs, K., 2010. In vitro production of equine embryos: state of the art. Reproduction in Domestic Animals, 45, pp.3-8.

Effect of ART towards horses

brock6663 — 2020-08-20 09:16:33 UTC

Positive aspects

Higher production of genetically-valuable horses.
ART-produced horses might possess better genes due to human intervention and selection and the examples of the better genes they possessed such as bigger size, much more muscular, better quality of the meat of the horses such as texture and colour as well as the horses able to run faster and resistance to diseases.
The use of the ART technique also help the infertile horses to reproduce and able to produce the next viable and healthy offspring, thus minimizing the problems of infertility and increase the population of the horses.

Negative aspects

Ethical issues will arise because some of the equipment and techniques which involved in the use of ART might cause harm to the horses

Negative aspects

brock6663 — 2020-08-20 09:22:59 UTC

Increase costs and expenditure of farm inputs due to the initiation of ART.
Failure of ART activities might increase the money spent.
Costs of manpower and farm inputs might increase due to ART-produced horses.

Positive aspects
- The farms which are able to produce more ART horses might be able to sell their ART horses with the good price and maximizing their profits, thus increase the incomes for their farms to be use in other necessary aspects for their farms such as recruit more workers, build significant facilities, and more research can be done to improve the current ART techniques which they used.
- For the farms which emphasized on the techniques of ART to produce horses might help to attract the attention of the government, private companies as well as research institution in which might able to attract more investment and initiative from them especially the government in order to encourage more similar research being done for the ART method.

Effects of ART to the Environment

brock6663 — 2020-08-20 09:27:04 UTC

For the horses which produced from ART method, since they possessed much better genes than the original population of the horses in which they are bigger and stronger than other horses, they might need to consume more food, thus when the farmers release them to the open field to graze freely, the ART- produced horses might tend to eat more grass, thus negatively affected the environment because most of the grass on the field which are fundamental to hold the soil and prevent the soil from erosion had been eaten by the horses, thus the open field are now easily to be eroded especially during extreme weather like heavy rainfall, the heavy rain might leads to the runoff the soil of the open field, and the runoff soil will bring toward to the nearby river, pond and sink to the bottom of the river, thus reducing the depth of the river. The excessive grazing by the ART-produced horses also reduce the amount of grass and plants which served as the part of the equilibrium of the ecosystem and food sources for certain organisms.
The waste and discharge due to the ART method which had been discarded to the environment might cause contamination, outbreak of diseases, and environmental issues such as pollution due to incorrect way of dispose the waste products and formation of stinking smell of the waste products.

HORSE FEEDS & NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS

tianhongcc — 2020-08-21 17:15:48 UTC

The Embryo Transfer of Equine/ Mare (Horse)

wilson12121477 — 2020-08-28 17:36:17 UTC

-Collection, handling and transfer of embryo (artificial insemination).
-Embryo is collected directly from the mare but not the oocytes.

The Handling of Oocytes in the Laboratory

wilson12121477 — 2020-08-30 07:08:47 UTC

The Figure below shows the summary of oocytes handling after the collection from the mares (Angel, et al., 2020).

References:
Angel, D., Canesin, H.S., Brom-de-Luna, J.G., Morado, S., Dalvit, G., Gomez, D., Posada, N., Pascottini, O.B., Urrego, R., Hinrichs, K. and Velez, I.C., 2020. Embryo development after vitrification of immature and in vitro-matured equine oocytes. Cryobiology.

EVOLUTIONARY TIMELINE OF HORSES

tianhongcc — 2020-08-30 16:24:45 UTC

References:
Cothran, E.G., 2020. Tracing the history of horse evolution and domestication. [online] Available at: [Accessed 31 August 2020].

Hunt, K., 2020. Wild horses: evolution timeline. [online] Available at: [Accessed 30 August 2020].

EVOLUTIONARY TIMELINE OF HORSES

tianhongcc — 2020-08-30 16:52:34 UTC

Interesting Facts

germainesmm — 2020-08-31 12:43:21 UTC

1. Pregnancy can be confirmed by ultrasound at 2 weeks.
2. Changes in the uterus can be felt at approximately 6 weeks of pregnancy.
3. Foals start to look like a small horse at around 3 months in the womb.

SYMPTOMS & STAGES OF PREGNANCY IN HORSES

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INTERESTING FACT: Foals can stand approximately 30 minutes after birth.

EQUINE FETAL DEVELOPMENT STAGES

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1. HYRACOTHERIUM

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Existed in early Eocene (approximately 50 to 55 million years ago)
Similar to dog: small size (10 - 20” height), arched back, short neck, snout, legs & long tail
Omnivorous teeth: 3 incisors, 1 canine, 3 premolars & 4 molars
Feed on fruit & short foliage
Pad-footed: four toes on all its feet

2. MESOHIPPUS

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Appeared in late Eocene epoch (about 40 million years ago)
24” tall, reduced back arched, slight elongated neck, legs, stout & face
Shallow facial fossa
Pad-footed: three toes on each foot (fourth front toe ---> vestigial stub)

3. MIOHIPPUS

germainesmm — 2020-08-31 13:15:56 UTC

Found roughly 36 million years ago
Larger body size & skull
Facial fossa became deeper & expanded
Appearance of crest on upper cheek teeth
Three-toed

4. MERYCHIPPUS

germainesmm — 2020-08-31 13:16:54 UTC

Existed approximately 17 million years ago
Height was 40” tall, elongated muzzle, deeper jaw, large teeth roots given rise to backward movement of eyes, wider molars, higher crown & harder cement
Nimble & smarter due to fissured neocortex & bigger cerebellum
Stood on one-toed with two smaller one

5. PLIOHIPPUS

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- Detected in the mid of Miocene epoch (about 15 million years ago)
Deep facial fossa & strong curved teeth
One-toed

6. EQUUS

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First Equus was roughly 13.2 hands tall
Rigid spine, long neck, legs, nose, fused-leg bones, larger brain, high-crowned, straight & grazing teeth & strong crests lined
One-toed: side ligament to avoid hoof twisting

PASTURES

germainesmm — 2020-08-31 14:11:45 UTC

Normal functioning of of the gastrointestinal tract
Pastures rich in digestible energy and crude protein
Excellent source of digestible nutrients for horses

HAYS

germainesmm — 2020-08-31 14:12:03 UTC

Bermudagrass hay, oat hay, alfalfa hay, clover and grass hay
Often low in nutritional content, overcoming by providing supplements

SALT & MINERALS

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Incorporated in a concentrate mix or supply separately
Sodium: maintains fluid balance & hydration in horse; low sodium level hinders horse from drinking as to retain the sodium in the body

CONCENTRATES

germainesmm — 2020-08-31 14:16:34 UTC

Mixes of grains, flaxseed, beet pulp, molasses, bran, salts and vitamins
Provide quick energy & help to furnish deficit nutrients in horse

GRAINS

germainesmm — 2020-08-31 14:17:18 UTC

Oats, barley, corns, wheat, milom & soybean
Protein supplement: soybean
Corns, barley & beet pulp: high energy content, should be given in proper amount to avoid obesity

TREATS

germainesmm — 2020-08-31 14:17:51 UTC

Carrots & apples
Contain high amount of sugar
Frequent consumption can affect intestinal flora

REFERENCES

germainesmm — 2020-08-31 14:19:31 UTC

Blocksdorf, K., 2019. What horses eat that keep them healthy. [online] Available at: <https://www.thesprucepets.com/what-horses-eat-that-keep-them-healthy-1886504> [Accessed 21 August 2020].

Cash, D., Griffin, A., Nadeau, J. and Skelly, C., 2017. What do you need to know about horse hay. [online] Available at: <https://www.myhorseuniversity.com/single-post/2017/09/25/What-You-Need-To-Know-About-Horse-Hay> [Accessed 22 August 2020].

Eldredge, D.M., 2019. Salt vs. mineral blocks: which should you choose? [online] Available at: <https://www.horsehealthproducts.com/horsemans-report/nutrition/salt-vs-mineral-block#:~:text=Salt%20and%20mineral%20blocks%20were,the%20amount%20of%20salt%20needed.> [Accessed 22 August 2020].

Extension, 2020. Grains for horses and their characteristics. [online] Available at: <https://horses.extension.org/grains-for-horses-and-their-characteristics/> [Accessed 22 August 2020].

Geor, R., 2016. Pasture glass: the healthy choice. [online] Available at: <https://thehorse.com/151332/pasture-grass-the-healthy-choice/> [Accessed 22 August 2020].

OPINIONS ON THE EFFECTS OF ASSISTED REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGIES (ARTs) TOWARDS:

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ANIMAL (HORSE) PERSPECTIVE

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ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVE

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ECONOMICAL PERSPECTIVE

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SPECIFICALLY DESIRED TRAITS/ CHARACTERISTICS

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Speed
Stamina
Strength
Intelligence
Muscling
Trainability

Price, M., 2017. Most modern horses came from just two ancient lineages, [online] Available at: [Accessed 31 August 2020].

DID YOU KNOW?

germainesmm — 2020-08-31 15:58:03 UTC

If a foal is conceived in England but foaled in the United States (US), it will be regarded as being bred in the US.

WHEN & HOW DID HORSES GET DOMESTICATED?

germainesmm — 2020-08-31 16:09:59 UTC

Horses were "tamed" 6,000 years ago.
On the grasslands of Ukraine, southwest Russia and west Kazakhstan.

WAS DOMESTICATION LIMITED TO A SINGLE AREA?

germainesmm — 2020-08-31 16:18:04 UTC

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)

germainesmm — 2020-08-31 16:21:22 UTC

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), only inheritable from the mother, illustrated a great deal of diversity among individuals and strongly supported the idea that wild horses from various geographic areas contributed to the domestic horse.

COAT COLOR

germainesmm — 2020-09-01 03:32:28 UTC

Uniform coat color or color patterns.

Examples:

Light chestnut coat desired in Belgian draft horses bred in the United States.
Dun coloration characteristic of the Norwegian Fjord.

ABILITY TO PERFORM ALTERNATE GAITS

germainesmm — 2020-09-01 03:34:55 UTC

Variations in the pattern and timing of footfall

Selected due to increased ride comfort as well as for their associated visual characteristics.

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Example: Thoroughbred breed

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"Hot-blooded" horses, known for their agility, speed, and spirit and widely used in horse racing

Perfect race horse: Fast and light
Thus, breeding has focused on Thoroughbreds with huge muscle concentrations but light bones (Clark, 2011).

Although Thoroughbreds have become faster over the years, they have also grown more fragile, producing a breed of horse known as "heart of a locomotive" and "champagne-glass ankles".

Clark, J., 2011. "How Thoroughbred Horses Work". [online] Available at: [Accessed 31 August 2020].

Runner-up Eight Belles breaks front ankles, euthanized on track

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germainesmm — 2020-09-01 12:05:49 UTC

PERSONALITY PROFILE

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High energy
Good sensitivity
Good adaptability
Submissiveness
Preparedness to seek human contact and self reliance
Low levels of fearfulness and aggression

No, the domestication of horses was not limited to a single area, but resulted from wild horses from various geographical areas.

germainesmm — 2020-09-01 12:49:41 UTC

Mitochondrial deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) contains genes inherited solely from the mother, suggesting that horses were domesticated many times, in different places.
Throughout history, more mares might have contributed to the founding of the domestic horse than stallions, because stallions can be difficult to handle.
Most selection is directed toward the males, because at the level of the individual they can produce such a large number of offspring compared with females.
Thus, a small number of stallions might have been used to impregnate large numbers of mares.

Y chromosome

germainesmm — 2020-09-01 12:55:27 UTC

Domestic horse is dominated by a single, paternally inherited Y chromosome lineage, in which there is almost no variation.
Lack of variation on the Y chromosome might indicate a narrow origin for the domestic horse.

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HORSE MEAT (CHEVALINE)

germainesmm — 2020-09-01 14:24:11 UTC

Meat production is generally supplied by foals of mainly ancient heavy draft breeds.

High dressing percentages
Good meat yields
High productivity

Belaunzaran, X., Rui, J.B., Bessa, Lavin, P., Mantecon, A.R., John, K.G., Kramer, D. and Aldai, N., 2015. Horse-meat for human consumption — current research and
future opportunities. Meat Science, 108, pp. 74–81.

Important Characteristics of Horse

tianhongcc — 2020-09-01 14:30:06 UTC

Herbivore: feed mainly on foliage
Herd animal: many ears and eyes to help rapid detection of a threat or predator for protection, security and peace, which increase survival
Flight animal: ability to achieve high speed when galloping
Social animal: a harem leads by a stallion and about 2 to 5 mares, male offspring will be chasing out of the harem & ability to form long-term or short-term friendship
Hierarchical animal: each horse has its place in the pecking order
Creature of habit: possesses internal body clock
Instinctive animal: behave innately & unconsciously
Movement animal: requirement for movement

Reference:
Jong, M., 2013. Horse characteristics. [online] Available at: [Accessed 1 September].

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Petersen, J.L., Mickelson, J.R., Rendahl, A.K., Valberg, S.J., Andersson, L.S., Axelsson, J., Bailey, E., Bannasch, D., Binns, M.M., Borges, A.S., Brama, P., Câmara, Machado, A., Capomaccio, S., Cappelli, K., Cothran, E.G., Distl, O., Fox-Clipsham, L., Graves, K.T., Guérin, G., Haase, B., Hasegawa, T., Hemmann, K., Hill, E.W., Leeb, T., Lindgren, G., Lohi, H., Lopes, M.S., McGivney, B.A., Mikko, S., Orr, N., Penedo, M.C., Piercy, R.J., Raekallio, M., Rieder, S., Røed, K.H., Swinburne, J., Tozaki, T., Vaudin, M., Wade, C.M. and McCue, M.E. Genome-wide analysis reveals selection for important traits in domestic horse breeds. ‎Public Library of Science (PLoS) Genetics, 9(1).

Kazakhstan: Where Horses are Revered and Eaten

germainesmm — 2020-09-01 15:25:57 UTC

Horse meat (chevaline) is a staple food of the Kazakh diet.
Beshbarmak and kazy (sausage) are served at celebrations and to honor guests such as travelers who make visits to Kazakhstan.

Anatomy of Equine

tianhongcc — 2020-09-01 15:35:05 UTC

germainesmm — 2020-09-01 15:37:39 UTC

Reproductive Organ of Mare

tianhongcc — 2020-09-01 15:38:16 UTC

source: https://www.msdvetmanual.com/horse-owners/reproductive-disorders-of-horses/the-gonads-and-genital-tract-of-horses

Reproductive Organ of Stallion

tianhongcc — 2020-09-01 15:40:19 UTC

WHY IS THERE A NEED FOR ASSISTED REPRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES (ARTs) in horses?

germainesmm — 2020-09-01 15:53:40 UTC

Increase pregnancy rates and consequently production of offspring by mare.
Obtain offspring from mares that suffer from early embryo loss.

Hinrichs, K. and Choi, Y.H., 2005. Assisted reproductive techniques in the horse. Clinical Techniques in Equine Practice, 4(3), pp. 210-218.

Field processing of IVP equine embryos in the laboratory

tanmiaoning2000 — 2020-09-02 00:05:57 UTC

References:
Galli, C., Colleoni, S., Duchi, R., Lagutina, I. and Lazzari, G., 2018. Equine assisted reproduction and embryo technologies. Animal Reproduction (AR), 10(3), pp.334-343.

Oocyte Recovery

tanmiaoning2000 — 2020-09-02 00:08:44 UTC

Ovum Pick Up of matured oocytes

Oocytes are collected from the preovulatory follicle 24 h after administration of hCG to a follicle that has reached at least 35 mm and the donor showing signs of uterine edema
Oocytes that have undergone meiosis will have an expanded cumulus to facilitates recovery
After recovery from the donor mare, the oocytes complete their maturation in vitro & develop to the blastocyst stage
Matured oocytes are transferred surgically to the oviduct of a synchronized recipient through ICSI

tanmiaoning2000 — 2020-09-02 00:12:00 UTC

Ovum Pick Up of immature oocytes

Requires vigorous flushing and scraping of the follicle
Donors are monitored by ultrasound scanning to select the appropriate moment to avoid the presence of preovulatory follicles in favor of medium sized follicles (10-20 mm)
Oocytes that contain less than 5-7 follicles are not to be collected & wait for more follicles to grow

Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI)

tanmiaoning2000 — 2020-09-02 00:15:43 UTC

In the ICSI process, micropipette (a tiny needle) is used to inject a single sperm into the center of the egg. Once fertilization occurs, the fertilized egg (embryo) grows in a laboratory before it is transferred to the female (mare).

Application of ICSI of horse help to overcome fertility problems:

inefficient conventional IVF
resulting in the first pregnancy derived from an in vitro matured oocyte
poor sperm motility and reproductive performance in vitro of male parner (stallion)

Clinical use of ICSI

tanmiaoning2000 — 2020-09-02 00:16:29 UTC

to overcome male infertility in human assisted reproduction
reason:
sperm selection does not occur in a physiological way and it might carry abnormalities to the offspring.

Horse (Equus caballus)

germainesmm — 2020-09-02 02:25:46 UTC

A herbivorous , ungulate mammal of the family Equidae.
Comprises a single species, Equus caballus, whose numerous varieties are called breeds.

EQUUS

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Comes from the greek word, meaning "quickness".

TAXONOMY OF HORSE

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Kingdom: Animalia
Subkingdom: Bilateria
Infrakingdom: Deuterostomia
Phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Infraphylum: Gnathostomata
Superclass: Tetrapoda
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Theria
Infraclass: Eutheria
Order: Perissodactyla
Family: Equidae
Genus: Equus
Species: Equus caballus

Reference

germainesmm — 2020-09-02 02:38:34 UTC

Bradford, A., 2015.

Horse Facts., [online] Available at: [Accessed 2 September].

CONSERVATION OF ENDANGERED EQUID SPECIES

germainesmm — 2020-09-02 02:49:46 UTC

The Przewalski’s horse is native to China and Mongolia that was declared extinct in the wild in 1969.
They are considered as the last wild horse on the planet.
The filly of Anne and Agri was the first Przewalski’s horse to be born via artificial insemination (AI).
Today, approximately 1,500 Przewalski’s horses reside at zoological institutions worldwide, carrying genes from only 14 original animals.

germainesmm — 2020-09-02 03:01:13 UTC

Don't forget to have lunch! :3

germainesmm — 2020-09-02 03:10:51 UTC

DID YOU KNOW ?

tianhongcc — 2020-09-02 03:28:15 UTC

Adult male horse: stallion
Adult female horse: mare
Castrated male horse: gelding
Young male horse (< 3 y.o.): colt
Young female horse (< 3 y.o.): filly
Unweaned female & male horse: foal

✨🐴 GROUP MEMBERS 🐴✨

germainesmm — 2020-09-07 08:55:05 UTC

🟣Chua Tian Hong
🔴Germaine Sia Ming Ming
🟡Na Yun Feng
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🟢Yik Hoe Yin

🌼🌸 ❣︎ 𓃗 ~ READ ME BEFORE PROCEEDING ~ 𓃗 ❣︎ 🌸🌼

germainesmm — 2020-09-07 15:09:47 UTC

WHATS UP FELLOW HUMANS ! 👋🏼 GREETINGS AND THANK YOU FOR STOPPING BY THE NEIGH NEIGH BLOG ʕ•ᴥ•ʔ ❤️
This blog mainly focuses on the assisted reproduction technologies (ARTs) applied on horses along with some interesting facts along the way.

Sending much love ~ Hoping that you'll enjoy reading and are able to pick up a thing or two along the way ♡´･ᴗ･`♡ TEEHEE ☹️😕😐🙂😊😆

germainesmm — 2020-09-07 15:15:49 UTC

2020-09-09 13:18:42 UTC

good