Achaemenid Empire by Patrick Leary https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z The Greatest Empire the World Had Ever Seen en-us 2022-04-19 17:38:19 UTC 2026-03-04 14:34:26 UTC hello@padlet.com Imperial Building projects/Monumental Architecture: The Gate of All Nations patrickleary1 https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2149005277 Here we see the "Gate of All Nations", the entrance to the complex of Persepolis where human headed bulls announced to its visitors they were entering the heart of Persian power.  Darius began the construction of the Persian ceremonial center at Persepolis c. 518 BCE.  For almost two centuries this was considered the richest place on Earth. The site was the home of a massive palatial complex inspired from Mesopotamian design. While Darius began the complex, his son Xerxes I and grandson Artaxerxes expanded the already impressive site.  Persepolis would eventually become the center of the empire, but its original intent was for spectacular receptions, to hold festivals, and for the subjected to pay respect to the king.  The “Gate of All Nations” is a prime example of monumental architecture used ideologically for legitimization to proclaim Xerxes as the king of kings and of all countries on Earth and to invite all to witness him.

Briant, Pierre. 2002. From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Translated by Peter T. Daniels. Penn State University Press.]]> 2022-04-19 17:41:51 UTC https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2149005277 Introduction patrickleary1 https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2149044016 My exhibit is titled “The Achaemenid Empire: The Greatest Empire the World Had Ever Seen.”  I believe that the Achaemenid Empire is the greatest empire the world had ever seen up until its demise c.330 BCE.  I also believe that it can be argued that at the time of its crystallization (c.500 BCE), that being when it was at its most perfect and definite form, it was the greatest ancient empire overall. The Achaemenids exemplified “empire” with essential imperial components such as vast territorial expansion, imperial ideology, infrastructure, coinage, innovation, centralized government, and a single authoritative figure.  
 
Much of my personal intrigue concerning the Persians is due to their almost enigmatic nature. Much of what is known through literary sources is from the Hellenes, the (sometimes) enemies of the Achaemenids, victors of the Greco-Persian wars, and eventual conquerors in Alexander the Great.  The western lens of the Achaemenids coupled with the stigma towards Iran and modern Arabic regions has undoubtedly undervalued and arguably forgotten their contributions toward humanity in comparison to other ancient civilizations such as the Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians.  This exhibit attempts to revitalize its contribution to antiquity.  
]]> 2022-04-19 18:05:35 UTC https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2149044016 patrickleary1 https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2149074572 This BBC “In Our Time” podcast provides plentiful insight on Persepolis with discussion between three leading Achaemenid scholars, Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones (Cardiff University), Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis (The British Museum), and Lindsey Allen (King’s College London). ]]> 2022-04-19 18:23:56 UTC https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2149074572 Persepolis Reconstruction patrickleary1 https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2149215727 This documentary titled “Lost Worlds: Persepolis. It is an in-depth analysis of the ceremonial capital of Persepolis.  It focuses on the art and archaeology of the capital such as the apadana, gate of all nations, and hall of one-hundred columns.  ]]> 2022-04-19 20:09:55 UTC https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2149215727 Imperial Ideology: Darius' Behistun Inscription patrickleary1 https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2149221971 The Behistun inscription is one of the most essential pieces of art and text regarding the Achaemenid empire.  It is a relief accompanied by a tri-lingual inscription consisting of Old Persian, Elamite, and Akkadian located 330ft up a cliff face in Western Iran. It describes how the supreme god Ahuramazda chose the charismatic Darius to rise to power and ascend the Achaemenid throne.  It is believed that Darius had overthrown the legitimate king, Bardiya.  The inscription records Darius’ restoration of order against rival satraps who attempted to overthrow the Persian king c. 520 BCE.  In the relief, Darius is depicted pressing the chest of the primary usurper named Gaumata, likely Bardiya himself.  All of the rivals are facing Darius preparing to be executed.  Above the human figures is a faravahar which is the primary symbol of Zoroastrianism.  This is another primary example of imperial ideology with Darius proclaiming his legitimacy very clearly and informing all that his authority is derived from his ancestors and “the lord or wisdom” himself, Ahuramazda.  The tri-lingual inscription is also considered immensely important because it allowed insight into cuneiform scripts and is dubbed, “the cuneiform Rosetta stone.”
 
Briant, Pierre. 2002. From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Translated by Peter T. Daniels. Penn State University Press.
  
]]> 2022-04-19 20:15:15 UTC https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2149221971 Imperial Ideology: Cyrus Cylinder patrickleary1 https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2149248049 Here we have “The Cyrus cylinder.” This Babylonian cuneiform cylinder tells of the first Persian king, Cyrus, describing his takeover of Babylon. We see imperial ideology’s justification of conquest utilized very uniquely.  Nabonidus, the would-be final king of the Neo-Babylonians had primarily worshipped the moon god Sin to such an extent he was labeled a “heretic king.”  The depreciation of the high deity Marduk and the rest of the pantheon couples with the sole adoration of Sin was to such great an extent it should be considered henotheism.  This break in reverence of Marduk led to immense turmoil among the elites, many who were priests of the primary god.  The record of Nabonidus’ immoral ways is documented on this Babylonian cylinder.  The gods deserted Babylon and found a new champion in Cyrus.  The cylinder records Marduk’s orders to Cyrus to expand his kingship over the tribes of Iran and march on Babylon which he did without a fight.  While most sources agree that the transition was peaceful it should be noted that this is a propagandistic text of imperial ideology supposedly from the mouth of the Persian king himself.  The overthrowing of Nabonidus was seen as “legitimate” because he had been a heretic king and a new, righteous guardian and worshipper of Marduk was here to restore the temples and religious cults that Nabonidus had belittled.  This marked the true beginning of the Achaemenid empire and exemplifies expansion justified by ideology and the opportunistic conquest of a kingdom weakened by internal conflict. 

https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1880-0617-1941

Cline, Eric H & Mark W. Graham. 2011. Ancient Empires: From Mesopotamia to the Rise of Islam. Cambridge University Press. 

]]> 2022-04-19 20:38:56 UTC https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2149248049 Expansion: Map of Expansion from Cyrus to Darius patrickleary1 https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2155548262 Territorial expansion is undeniably one of the most essential elements of “empire.”  The primary method of expansion seems to be the by way of conquest but can also result from diplomacy and other modes of incorporation. The process of expansion typically occurs opportunistically when kingdoms and regions become disintegrated and weak.  Motivation for territorial growth can be for reasons such as the acquisition of resources, ideological reasoning, and the creating of a shielded “buffer” zone for imperial safety.
 
The Achaemenids had begun as one of the various Indo-European language peoples who migrating into modern Iran c. 11th century BCE.  Their humble beginnings of a local kingdom of Anshan, subjects of the Medes, would not last long.  Following the defeat of the Median Astyages c.550 BCE, Cyrus launched the beginning of empire by strengthening his dominant kingdom.  The Achaemenid empire would expand to become the largest empire of its time under the control of Cyrus, Cambyses II, and Darius and would encompass more land than even the Roman Empire.  At the height of their territorial control the empire stretched west from modern Libya, east to Pakistan, and south from Egypt to its northern height of the Russian Steppes.  If expansion and size is a factor concerning “empire,” then the Achaemenids certainly fill the bill.

Cline, Eric H & Mark W. Graham. 2011. Ancient Empires: From Mesopotamia to the Rise of Islam. Cambridge University Press.

Sinopoli, Carla M. 1994. “The Archaeology of Empires.” Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 23, pp. 159-180. 
]]> 2022-04-24 21:26:19 UTC https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2155548262 Ethnicities of the Empire, "Many as ONE" patrickleary1 https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2155570377 With expansion being a primary component of “empire,” imperial geography is often vast, diverse, and multiethnic with ends of the empire being a great distance from the imperial center.  This is why analyzing the core as well as periphery is essential when exploring an empire.  Some regions, provinces, or territories may be strategically advantageous, and others may be economically significant. On the DNe inscription from the Tomb of Darius at Naqš-e Rustam we see the various ethnicities and geographies that had come together under the Achaemenid Empire.  It would seem that the Achaemenids had reveled in the concept of a unified world and the Persians enjoyed utilizing different foreign customs as they saw fit as well,
 
“Of all men, the Persians especially tend to adopt foreign customs.  For example, they wear the fashions of the Medes in the belief that the Medes’ clothing is more beautiful than their own, and they wear Egyptian breastplates when they go to war.” -Hdt. The Histories. 1.135
 
This piece is included in the exhibit because it is a reminder of religious and cultural tolerance and the unification and cohesion of the empire.  While the empire was clearly seen as united, it must be reminded that members of the empire could not “become Persian” as someone could become Roman and the members of the empire were all beneath “the king of the world.”

Briant, Pierre. 2002. From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Translated by Peter T. Daniels. Penn State University Press.

Herodotus. 2007. The Landmark Herodotus: The Histories. Edited by Robert B Strassler. New York: Pantheon Books. 

Khatchadourian, Lori. 2016. Imperial Matter: Ancient Persia and the Archaeology of Empires. University of California Press.
]]> 2022-04-24 22:18:53 UTC https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2155570377 Military: DNb Inscription from the Tomb of Darius patrickleary1 https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2155577353 The ability to generate a large military is another essential component to imperial success.  Technology, resources, organization, and number is key for not only imperial conquest and expansion but safety through intimidation.  The Achaemenid army was a pillar of the empire and was used to acquire new territory and maintain order of its vast kingdom.  The size of the army went from small tribal units early under Cyrus to the largest in the world under Xerxes. While the numbers are likely exaggerated, Herodotus proclaims the number of Persian soldiers to be more than five million while the likely number is in the hundreds of thousands (Hdt. The Histories. 7.186).  The Persians would also establish a royal guard of ten thousand highly trained infantry soldiers known as “The Immortals.”  Under Darius, the Achaemenids would also be the first empire to deploy an imperial navy. Here, we have the DNb inscription from the tomb of Darius at naqš-e Rustam.  It doubles as a theological moral ideology displaying the ideal king but also described the skills of Persian soldiers through Ahuramazda, “I am skilled both in hands and in feet.  As a horseman, I am a good horseman.  As a bowman, I am a good bowman, both on foot and on horseback.  As a spearman, I am a good spearman, both on foot and on horseback” (DNb inscription 8h).  While Ahuramazda was the Achaemenid moral and ethical compass, Ahuramazda and Zoroastrianism also urged education by way of warfare as essential to the Persian way of life and is seen with the DNb inscription.  ]]> 2022-04-24 22:36:41 UTC https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2155577353 Ahuramazda patrickleary1 https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2155593193 Imperial ideology is undoubtedly one of the most important tools of an empire, especially in ancient times.  It is used for motivating action such as territorial expansion but also to provide legitimation and explanation to subjected peoples.  This justification and motivation can be done through art, legend, grand architecture, and altering “real” facts to support a certain narrative.  When it comes to the Achaemenids we see this utilized early on with Cyrus justifying the conquest of Babylon through Marduk but would eventually change to Ahuramazda.  It was Darius who adopted the new faith of Zoroastrianism, establishing it as his central religious ideology.  Zoroastrianism is argued to have been founded in the 6thcentury by the prophet Zoroaster or Zarathustra but may have much earlier origins.  Ahuramazda is the high deity of Zoroastrianism and Darius uses his name on most of his royal reliefs and inscriptions such as at Behistun.  Zoroastrians believed in a concept known as “Arta” which came from Ahuramazda and was comparable to cosmic order and truth.  Darius used the concept of the Achaemenid king as a world leader, chosen by Ahuramazda, with “Arta” being granted to the followers of the empire.  Here, we have a relief from the great hall at Persepolis where an image of Ahuramazda would lie above the Persian throne displaying the divine legitimacy of Achaemenid rule. 
 
https://harvardartmuseums.org/collections/object/291721

Briant, Pierre. 2002. From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Translated by Peter T. Daniels. Penn State University Press.
 
Cline, Eric H & Mark W. Graham. 2011. Ancient Empires: From Mesopotamia to the Rise of Islam. Cambridge University Press. 
]]> 2022-04-24 23:10:23 UTC https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2155593193 Persian Daric with Bow and Spear patrickleary1 https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2155645574 The Achaemenid Empire’s original monetary unit was a currency of unminted weighed silver.  Cyrus the Great would introduce minted coinage after defeating King Croesus and conquest of Lydia.  The Lydian stater was one of the first minted coins of history and the first in the Mediterranean world. It was Darius who introduced the Achaemenid currency known as a Daric. Here, we have an example of Achaemenid coinage with the Daric, the first gold coin in history, “What happened was that after Darius refined a quantity of gold to its highest possible purity and struck the most valuable coins from this metal.” – Hdt. The Histories. 4.166.  The Daric would include a Persian king as an archer, holding a bow in his left hand and either arrows or a spear in the right.  Coinage is an important component of “empire” because of their ease to become circulated due to their convenient size and allow trade, tax, tribute, and connectivity to thrive.  Coinage is also utilized as a way to exert imperial ideology as seen with the glorification of the king as hunter/warrior.

https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/324243

Briant, Pierre. 2002. From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Translated by Peter T. Daniels. Penn State University Press.

Herodotus. 2007. The Landmark Herodotus: The Histories. Edited by Robert B Strassler. New York: Pantheon Books.  ]]> 2022-04-25 00:29:10 UTC https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2155645574 Satrapies patrickleary1 https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2155675370 The Achaemenid Empire established a bureaucratic administration system by dividing the Empire into satrapies, province like territories. An elite Persian (sometimes foreigners like Themistocles) was appointed ruler of a satrapy and was known as the satrap, who governed in the king’s name.  The tolerant nature of the Persians remained and is demonstrated in the pre-existing cultures thoroughly imbedded into each respective satrapy. The satrap had various tasks and roles and are not entirely known but one thing is certain that they held immense responsibility and power.  Herodotus states how one satrap, Mithrobates, fell out of favor for not having been able to, “add the island of Samos to the domains of the king.” This concept is exceptionally imperial with the duties of the satrap not only being to maintain order but expanding the empire’s grasp to foreign territory.  Each satrapy was also responsible for regularized taxation at a level that had not existed until the Persians.  Some brought silver, gold, or textiles, whatever each respective region obtained as resources.  This act of tax/tribute doubles as imperial ideology with it being the request of Ahuramazda.

Briant, Pierre. 2002. From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Translated by Peter T. Daniels. Penn State University Press.]]> 2022-04-25 00:59:07 UTC https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2155675370 Imperial Infrastructure: Road System patrickleary1 https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2155725551 In having a such a vast, multiethnic, pan-regional empire, interconnectivity is key.  This holds true with the Achaemenids and their ability to establish communication and trade by way of road construction. The revitalization of previous Babylonian road networks under Darius was revolutionary and would later be utilized by the Romans. The Romans would also borrow the waystations along the road system from the Achaemenids which they referred to as mutations. The mutations would be used to exchange tires horses for fresh ones. This imperial infrastructure would also allow taxation and other economic activity to thrive but also allow the central authority to make its presence in subjected territory.  The ancient authors were fascinated by the Persian road system which ended to the far corners of the empire and were deemed extremely safe, especially for antiquity standards. Concerning the road system Herodotus states, 
“Now the nature of the road on which one makes the journey is as follows.  There are royal stations and the most beautiful guesthouses along the entire length of the road, which passes through inhabited country and is safe for travel.” - Hdt. The Histories. 5.52
]]> 2022-04-25 01:44:02 UTC https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2155725551 Road System (alternative image): The Royal Road patrickleary1 https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2155728108 2022-04-25 01:46:42 UTC https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2155728108 Imperial Infrastructure & Innovation: The Postal System, "Chapar Khaneh" patrickleary1 https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2156800112 Here, we see the site of an ancient Chapar Kheneh which has now been converted into a reconstructed way-station and museum in Meybod, Iran.  Chapar Kheneh were relay stations every 20 or so miles primarily used to relay royal decrees and messages. This postal system guarantees the acquisition of a fresh horse for each courier.  The system operated with one courier delivering a message to the next along the sophsticated road network. A rider would naturally not be tired, but the horse certainly would be. A fresh horse at each relay station can be utilized again and again for the entire duration journey.  It can be argued that this courier system is the precursor to the USPS. Herodotus states, 
 
 “Nothing mortal travels so fast as these Persian messengers. The entire plan is a Persian invention... neither snow nor rain nor heat nor dark of night keeps them from completing their appointed course as swiftly as possible.  The first courier passes on the instructions to the second, the second to the third…”- Herodotus, The Histories, 8.98.  
 
Chapar Kheneh were also used as garrison patrol stations where Persian soldiers would secure the road system.  These beneficial buildings on networks of communication displays how highly the Achaemenids deemed interconnectivity throughout the largest empire of its time.

Briant, Pierre. 2002. From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Translated by Peter T. Daniels. Penn State University Press.

Herodotus. 2007. The Landmark Herodotus: The Histories. Edited by Robert B Strassler. New York: Pantheon Books.  
]]> 2022-04-25 15:36:44 UTC https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2156800112 Susa: Administrative Capital and Treasury patrickleary1 https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2156880846 Imperial capitals are commonly strategically located centers of administration, economic, and ritual activity.  Capitals can be newly established or implemented at already existing centers, commonly built around a sacred locale.  The Achaemenids were unique with their empire, they never truly gave up their nomadism and would never remain in one location for long.  Their movement would rotate based on things such as ritual, war, and weather.  The Achaemenids would numerous capital throughout its history at sites such as Persepolis, Susa, Pasargadae, Ecbatana, and Babylon.  Susa was conquered under Cyrus the Great but would be a capital of the empire under Cambyses II. The site of Susa, located in the lower Zagros mountains, would serve as the administrative capital of the empire and serve as its treasury.  It would be the center of revenue collection for the Achaemenids and is exemplified with the Royal Road which spanned from Sardis to Susa. 

Cline, Eric H & Mark W. Graham. 2011. Ancient Empires: From Mesopotamia to the Rise of Islam. Cambridge University Press. ]]> 2022-04-25 16:15:39 UTC https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2156880846 Conclusion patrickleary1 https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2156971434 This exhibit was an attempt to revitalize the contributions of the Achaemenids to the ancient world.  I believe it displays the greatness of their empire by way of expansion, imperial ideology, ingenious leadership, consolidation of power, centralization, and innovation that had not been seen beforehand.  Yes, they had the advantage of being the “first” to have such an expansive empire but with that being the case they were the forerunners of empire and laid the foundation for empires to come.  They had built an empire larger than anyone before, ruled with an iron yet tolerant fist, used divine rights to justify their claims, and unified many peoples under one banner.  
The biggest takeaway from this exhibit should be the two key elements to their greatness, innovation and tolerance, which is clearly on display in this exhibit and were critical components to their success.  The infrastructure/road network, postal system, common currency, military/navy, multiple capitals, and taxation/tribute were either the first of its kind or standardized like never before.  Like the Romans, they were syncretic borrowers of their vast empire.  They did not simply conquer and rebuild on their own terms.  The Achaemenids conquered, utilized existing elements of the region and advanced them.  They took these elements and ideas from conquered cultures and developed them to the greatest extent to build one of the greatest empires the ancient world had ever seen.   
]]> 2022-04-25 17:05:33 UTC https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2156971434 Engineering an Empire: The Persians patrickleary1 https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2157024680 This documentary titled “Engineering an Empire: The Persians” is an excellent overview of the Achaemenid Empire.  It is from a time when the History Channel was much more than Ancient Aliens and Ice Road Truckers. The documentary incorporates a brief history of the empire and displays the greatness of Achaemenid rulers, innovation by way of waterways, bridges, and other infrastructure as well as the construction of their luxurious capitals.  ]]> 2022-04-25 17:32:22 UTC https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2157024680 Bibliography: patrickleary1 https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2170495189  
Briant, Pierre. 2002. From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Translated by Peter T. Daniels. Penn State University Press.
 
Cline, Eric H & Mark W. Graham. 2011. Ancient Empires: From Mesopotamia to the Rise of Islam. Cambridge University Press. 
 
Herodotus. 2007. The Landmark Herodotus: The Histories. Edited by Robert B Strassler. New York: Pantheon Books.  
 
Khatchadourian, Lori. 2016. Imperial Matter: Ancient Persia and the Archaeology of Empires. University of California Press.
 
Kuhrt, Amelie. 2009. “The Achaemenid Persian Empire: Continuities, Adaptations, Transformations” from Alcock et al.’s Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History. Cambridge University Press. 
 
Sinopoli, Carla M. 1994. “The Archaeology of Empires.” Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 23, pp. 159-180. 
]]> 2022-05-04 19:30:44 UTC https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2170495189 Persepolis patrickleary1 https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2170529936 While administrative treasury at Susa was originally the site where tribute and tax would be delivered, after the construction of Persepolis this seemed to be slightly altered. Here, we see a portion of the “tribute frieze” at on the staircases at Persepolis, likely constructed on the behalf of Xerxes.  We see a total of twenty-three various delegations with a variety of gifts be brought to the king.  Peoples such as the Medes, Elamites, Babylonians, Assyrians, Scythians, Lydians, and Nubians are represented with gifts ranging from garments, weapons, vessels, chariots and animals such as horses, lions, camels, rams, and giraffes.  Kings from Darius on would reside in the palace during certain times of the year (most notably the Spring equinox) and at the apadana or audience hall would receive tribute from throughout the empire.  Visitors would enter through the “Gate of All Nations” and show veneration toward the king by performing the ritual greeting of proskynesis (forward kiss), something that Alexander would attempt to implement after conquering the Persians and Persepolis.  The “richest city under the sun” would be a ceremonial and symbolic capital of the Achaemenids and truly exemplified the quintessential pomp and circumstance of imperialism.  Like the DNb relief and inscription at Naqš-e Rustam, the  various representation of various ethnicities under the empire represent the unification and cohesion of the empire. 

Briant, Pierre. 2002. From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Translated by Peter T. Daniels. Penn State University Press.]]> 2022-05-04 20:01:05 UTC https://padlet.com/patrickleary1/tz33k8mfnp44t26z/wish/2170529936