Examples include Saccharomyces cerevisiae (baker's yeast) and Candida albicans (pathogenic yeast).

Certain yeasts can create pseudohyphae, which are long chains of budding cells that resemble hyphae.

A mycelium is a collection of hyphae.

Hyphae can be septate (with cross-walls) or coenocytic (without them).

Vegetative hyphae absorb nutrients, while aerial hyphae produce spores.

Examples include Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Rhizopus.

Important in pathogenic fungi, which cause systemic mycoses.

Example: Histoplasma capsulatum (yeast in the host, mold in the environment).

For example, consider Agaricus bisporus (a common fungus).

Example: Rhizopus (bread mold).

Parasitic organisms absorb resources from living hosts, often causing harm to them.

Example: Candida albicans (causes yeast infections).

Mutualistic: Establish symbiotic connections in which both partners gain.

Examples include mycorrhizal fungus and plant roots.

Example: Cladonia rangiferina (reindeer lichen)

Mycorrhizae: A mutualistic relationship between fungi and plant roots. The fungus enhances water and nutrient absorption for the plant, while the plant provides carbohydrates.

Example: Glomus species (arbuscular mycorrhizae)

Example: Marasmius oreades.

Chloroplasts are structures that contain chlorophyll, which is used for photosynthesis.

Large Central Vacuole: Holds water, nutrients, and waste.

Plasmodesmata are channels that allow cells to communicate.

Rectangular shape is due to stiff cell walls.

Air contains a higher percentage of CO₂ than water.

Initially, there was less rivalry for space.

Challenges:

There is a risk of drying out.

Need for structural support without water buoyancy.

Reproduction without the need of water to disperse gametes.

Obtaining nutrients from the earth and air rather than water.

Stomata: Pores that allow gas exchange while limiting water loss.

Vascular Tissue (Xylem and Phloem): Transports water and nutrients.

Roots and root hairs absorb water and serve as anchors for plants.

Seeds and pollen serve to protect reproductive cells while also aiding dissemination.

Heterotrophic (uses food for energy)

Motile at some life stages.

There have no cell walls (unlike plants and fungi).

Have nerve and muscle tissue (most animals)

Reproduce sexually (with some limitations).

Mesoderm: Middle layer → Muscles, bones, circulatory system.

Endoderm: Inner layer → Digestive system, lungs.

Provide space for organ development.

Protect internal organs with fluid cushioning.

Allow movement and flexibility.