Madder (red), woad and indigo (blue), and saffron (yellow). Animal dyes were also used, such as Tyrian purple from sea snails for royalty and cochineal from insects for red. While these dyes work well, they also require large amounts of land and labor, which is why having colourful garments in history was seen as a status symbol, as only the wealthy and royals could afford the process. Laying early foundations for the link between fashion, status, and exploitation. These early practices contrast sharply with today’s industrial dyeing processes, where toxicity and mass production dominate

https://www.acs.org/pressroom/tiny-matters/19th-century-dye-industry.html?utm_source=chatgpt.com

https://www.openculture.com/2022/07/behold-a-book-of-color-shades-depicted-with-feathers-circa-1915.html

Today’s fashion industry depends almost entirely on synthetic dyes, with more than 10,000 different chemical colourants used worldwide. Modern dyeing creates the bright, lasting colours consumers expect, but it also comes with serious social and environmental consequences. Many factories, especially in low-cost manufacturing regions, use dyes derived from petrochemicals and release untreated wastewater into rivers. This pollution can contaminate drinking water, harm ecosystems, and expose workers to hazardous chemicals. The global demand for fast, cheap colour reflects a form of colour privilege, where consumers in wealthier countries benefit from vibrant fashion while production communities bear the hidden costs. The same innovation that once symbolised progress has now become one of fashion’s most toxic legacies, paving the way for today’s concerns about toxic dyes and sustainability.

Heavy Metals: Some dyes contain heavy metals like lead, mercury, and cadmium, which can be toxic to humans and animals. These metals can accumulate in the environment and cause long-term harm.

Azo Dyes: Certain azo dyes have been found to release aromatic amines, some of which are carcinogenic, when they come into contact with sweat or saliva.

Formaldehyde: This chemical is often used in textile finishing processes to reduce wrinkles and impart wrinkle resistance. However, it can cause skin irritation and respiratory issues in humans.

Chlorine Bleach: While effective at whitening fabrics, chlorine bleach releases harmful chemicals into the environment and can be irritating to the skin and respiratory system.

Perfluorinated Chemicals (PFCs): These chemicals are commonly used in waterproofing textiles, but they are persistent in the environment and have been linked to health issues.

Phthalates: Used in printing inks and plasticizers, phthalates can disrupt hormones and have adverse health effects.

Another study of this region found that lead and chromium levels in river water near dyeing units exceeded permissible standards, revealing how toxic dyes in wastewater flow directly into surface and groundwater systems.

In Bangladesh, where the textile and dyeing industry employs over four million people, the human cost of cheap colour is highly visible. Studies show that factory workers experience frequent skin irritation, respiratory problems, and eye inflammation from direct contact with dyes and chemical vapours (Kant 2012). Many facilities operate with minimal protective gear or ventilation, exposing workers to azo dyes that can release carcinogenic aromatic amines and to formaldehyde used in fabric finishing (Haque et al. 2022). One report from the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health revealed that wastewater from textile dyeing plants in Dhaka contains high levels of heavy metals such as lead, chromium, and cadmium, all linked to cancer, neurological disorders, and organ damage (Haque et al. 2022). The same study noted that communities downstream rely on these polluted rivers for drinking, bathing, and agriculture, meaning the health burden extends beyond the factory walls.

Ethically, the fashion industry’s reliance on toxic dyes exposes a power imbalance between producers and consumers. Workers in dyeing factories, often in low-income countries, face hazardous conditions daily, including direct exposure to carcinogenic and skin-irritating chemicals like azo dyes and formaldehyde, without adequate protective equipment or labour rights (Fibre2Fashion 2023). Studies show that workers in textile-dyeing regions such as Tirupur, India, experience high incidences of respiratory illness and skin disease due to chemical exposure and contaminated wastewater (Kant 2012). These conditions violate principles of decent work and human dignity, linking the ethics of production directly to consumer privilege. As Fibre2Fashion (2023) reports, “Consumers enjoy colourful, affordable garments, while those at the production end bear the health, environmental, and ethical costs of that colour.”

This imbalance also manifests culturally. The ability to purchase and discard brightly coloured garments cheaply has become a form of aesthetic privilege for wealthier consumers, while communities involved in their production are left with polluted waterways and declining health. The “hidden cost of colour,” as Alchemie Technology (2023) describes it, is not just ecological but moral: the global fashion system externalises its ethical debt to the most vulnerable. Moreover, cultural homogenisation in colour and design driven by global fashion trends further erases local identity and expression, as small-scale dyers cannot compete with fast production cycles.

Ethical responsibility within the fashion industry increasingly demands transparency, fair wages, and revival of cultural textile practices. Movements towards natural dyes, slow fashion, and traceable supply chains are a cultural response to the exploitative dyeing systems of the past century. As noted by SpringerOpen’s case study on handloom industries, “Reconnecting with sustainable dyeing practices not only restores ecological balance but also reclaims cultural dignity and craft heritage” (Shen 2014). By linking ethics with aesthetics, the industry can begin to decolonise colour production, valuing traditional knowledge, ensuring fair labour, and creating garments that embody respect for both people and planet.

From irresponsible production to global inequality and environmental collapse, each stage of the dyeing process links directly to multiple SDG global targets.

The cycle begins with overproduction and overconsumption. The growing demand for cheap, fast fashion has normalised excessive clothing output, pushing manufacturers to produce colourful garments at rapid speeds. To meet this demand, synthetic dyes became the dominant choice due to their cost efficiency and consistency. However, this pursuit of profit and convenience directly contradicts SDG 12: Responsible Consumption and Production, as it prioritises mass consumption over sustainable design and ethical manufacturing. The production process itself relies on synthetic chemicals derived from petroleum, further embedding the fashion industry in unsustainable, resource-intensive systems.

This overproduction fuels exploitation at a human level. Most textile dyeing now occurs in developing regions, where low labour costs and weak environmental regulations enable cheap production. Workers are often exposed to hazardous chemicals without adequate protection or fair compensation, linking the issue to SDG 3: Good Health and Well-being and SDG 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth. Unsafe working environments, coupled with poverty wages, deepen inequality and hinder access to safe livelihoods, reinforcing the challenges outlined in SDG 1: No Poverty and SDG 10: Reduced Inequalities. The pressure to maintain global fashion’s rapid pace often traps communities in cycles of economic dependency, where their health and safety are sacrificed for industry profit.

Beyond human harm, toxic dyes have severe ecological consequences. Effluent from dyeing processes is frequently discharged untreated into rivers, contaminating local water sources. This pollution undermines SDG 6: Clean Water and Sanitation, while the accumulation of toxic chemicals disrupts aquatic ecosystems and agricultural land, impacting both SDG 14: Life Below Water and SDG 15: Life on Land. The environmental damage loops back to affect communities that rely on these waters for drinking, fishing, and farming, showing that ecological degradation and human well-being are inseparable.

The environmental strain is compounded by energy use and emissions. The manufacture and application of synthetic dyes are highly energy-intensive, depending largely on fossil fuels. This reliance on non-renewable energy sources undermines SDG 7: Affordable and Clean Energy and SDG 13: Climate Action, contributing to the industry’s growing carbon footprint. As the fashion sector continues to expand, so too does its role in accelerating global warming and resource depletion.

The consequences of this system reach cultural and societal dimensions as well. Traditional dyeing practices, once rooted in local knowledge and natural materials, are being displaced by industrial methods, eroding cultural heritage and artisanal livelihoods. This loss connects to SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities, which emphasises cultural preservation and resilient production systems. Furthermore, polluted waterways and dying ecosystems threaten food sources, linking indirectly to SDG 2: Zero Hunger, as contaminated water and soil reduce agricultural productivity and food safety.

Altogether, the impacts of toxic dyes reveal an interconnected web of environmental, social, and economic challenges. The exploitation of workers, degradation of ecosystems, and dependence on fossil fuels reinforce one another, showing how unsustainable colour production perpetuates inequality and ecological harm. Addressing dye toxicity is, therefore, not only an environmental goal; it is a collective step toward achieving a fairer, more resilient global fashion system.

In addition to environmental persistence, these chemicals pose direct risks to human skin and health through contact and absorption. Some disperse dyes, commonly used in synthetic fabrics like polyester, are known to cause contact dermatitis or allergic reactions in sensitive individuals.

Moreover, finishing chemicals such as formaldehyde-based resins are applied to textiles to improve wrinkle resistance and durability. These agents, even at low residual levels, can lead to skin irritation, respiratory discomfort, or more serious long-term effects in vulnerable populations.

According to Pinto et al. (2025), textile workers who handle synthetic dyes, formaldehyde, and flame retardants regularly face “respiratory issues, skin irritation, and even cancer.”

While much attention is paid to end consumers, significant harm also begins at the production stage. In dyeing and finishing factories, especially in regions with limited regulation, workers are frequently exposed to concentrated chemical mixtures through inhalation, skin contact, and accidental spills.

Continuous exposure to heavy metals (like chromium, cadmium, and nickel) and other dye intermediates has been associated with kidney, liver, and neurological damage.

The global environmental injustice of fast fashion underscores this disparity: in many low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), those who work in or live near textile manufacturing facilities “bear a disproportionate burden of environmental health hazards” while consumers elsewhere reap the benefits of cheap, colourful clothing.

In China’s Zhejiang province, textile and dye-processing plants along the Qiantang River basin have produced extensive pollution, tied directly to global fashion supply chains. A report by Greenpeace East Asia identified large-scale wastewater plumes from dyeing units visible by satellite imagery off the coast of Shishi, and noted that “17 to 20 per cent of industrial water pollution comes from textile dyeing and treatment” in China.

Officials admit that economic growth has taken priority over environmental regulation in these areas.

https://www.planetcustodian.com/dyeing-industry-polluting-asian-rivers/15641/?utm_source=chatgpt.com

In the industrial textile cluster around the Ranaghat–Fulia–Shantipur region in West Bengal, heavy-metal contamination stemming from dye-factory effluents has entered the local environment. A study found heavy metal deposition (notably chromium) in soils, sediments, algae, macrophytes, and fish in water bodies receiving effluent from hand-loom textile units ( Similarly, another review highlighted that in Bengal’s food-growing zones near textile units, agro-products carried 2–40 times higher levels of Pb, Cd and Ni than WHO/FAO safe limits, while zinc was significantly depleted (IndiaWaterPortal 2023)

Policy and Industry Standards form the foundation for systemic change. Adopting frameworks like the ZDHC Roadmap to Zero ensures that hazardous chemicals are systematically removed from textile supply chains. Governments and regulatory bodies in major manufacturing countries must enforce wastewater treatment requirements and chemical disclosure, holding factories accountable for environmental and worker safety standards. Greenpeace’s Detox Campaign highlights that brand-level accountability and compliance with chemical management protocols can significantly reduce the toxic load entering waterways and communities (Greenpeace 2018; ZDHC Foundation 2022).

Technological innovations offer exciting opportunities to replace traditional, hazardous dyeing methods. Biotechnological dyes, such as those developed by Colorifix, leverage genetically engineered microbes to produce vibrant pigments directly on fabric, eliminating the need for heavy metals, formaldehyde, or azo compounds. Similarly, Natsai Audrey Chieza’s Faber Futures project demonstrates bacterial pigment application, combining aesthetic richness with reduced chemical impact (Chieza 2019). Waterless dyeing systems, which use supercritical CO₂, dramatically reduce water consumption and prevent chemical runoff, while the revival of natural dyes, including indigo, turmeric, and onion skin, promotes a return to sustainable, culturally-rooted colouration (Al-Tohamy 2022).

Nature-based solutions complement technological and policy approaches by using ecological systems to remediate dye pollution. Constructed wetlands allow plants and soil to naturally filter dye-laden wastewater, while biochar filtration and microbial bioreactors trap and degrade toxic compounds before they reach rivers and groundwater. These approaches not only reduce chemical contamination but also support local biodiversity and ecosystem restoration (Alegbe et al. 2024). Visualizing these systems for example, diagrams showing wastewater flowing through a wetland or microbial bioreactor, can help communicate the practical application of these solutions in real-world textile manufacturing.

Collectively, these strategies can be organized into designer and consumer actions. Designers can select low-impact dyes, collaborate with certified dye houses, and design for longevity, while consumers can reduce consumption, support brands committed to transparency, and minimize laundering practices that exacerbate pollution. Together, these approaches demonstrate that innovation and ethical practice are not mutually exclusive; they are mutually necessary.

These solutions naturally lead into Future Pathways, where the industry must embrace regenerative colour as a principle, integrating scientific innovation, ethical governance, and responsible design. By adopting these practices, fashion can transition from a system that externalizes harm to one that actively restores environmental, social, and cultural value.

• Chieza, Natsai Audrey. 2019. Faber Futures: Co-Designing Colour with Bacteria. London: Faber Futures Studio.

• ZDHC Foundation. 2022. Roadmap to Zero Programme: Chemical Management System Framework. Amsterdam: ZDHC. https://www.zdhc.org/.

  
  

Biotechnological pigments are a prime example of this shift. Colorifix uses genetically engineered microbes to produce vibrant colours without toxic chemicals, reducing water usage and chemical runoff (Colorifix 2024). Natsai Audrey Chieza’s Faber Futures project explores bacterial pigment application, offering an innovative alternative to conventional dyes while merging creativity and sustainability (Chieza 2019). Meanwhile, luxury brand Stella McCartney has partnered with Bolt Threads to create Mylo™, a mycelium-based leather alternative that avoids chemical-intensive leather tanning and dyeing processes, demonstrating the potential of circular, regenerative materials (Stella McCartney 2023).

Beyond technology, policy and ethical frameworks are crucial. Global adoption of chemical safety standards such as the ZDHC Roadmap to Zero and certifications like OEKO-TEX ensures accountability throughout the supply chain, while local governments must enforce wastewater treatment and labour protections. When coupled with consumer awareness and responsible purchasing, these strategies can collectively reduce fashion’s ecological footprint and human harm.

By adopting regenerative colour principles, the industry can actively contribute to the UN Sustainable Development Goals: ensuring clean water (SDG 6), promoting decent work (SDG 8), reducing inequalities (SDG 10), and encouraging responsible consumption (SDG 12). Colour, long associated with aesthetic appeal, can evolve into a symbol of sustainability, creativity, and ethical responsibility.

• Chieza, Natsai Audrey. 2019. Faber Futures: Co-Designing Colour with Bacteria. London: Faber Futures Studio.

• Stella McCartney. 2023. “Stella McCartney and Bolt Threads: Mylo Mycelium Leather.” https://www.stellamccartney.com

• ZDHC Foundation. 2022. Roadmap to Zero Programme: Chemical Management System Framework. Amsterdam: ZDHC.

• OEKO-TEX Association. 2023. Sustainable Textile Production (STeP) Standard.

• Choose low-impact dyes: natural plant-based or biotechnological (e.g., Colorifix, bacterial pigments).

• Collaborate with certified dye houses (ZDHC, OEKO-TEX).

• Design for longevity and versatility: fewer dye baths, timeless pieces.

• Support scientific innovations in sustainable textiles.

• Align with SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption & Production) & SDG 6 (Clean Water).

Examples:

• Colorifix: microbial pigments reduce water use & toxic chemicals.

• Natsai Audrey Chieza: bacterial dye research combining art + sustainability.

• Stella McCartney x Bolt Threads: bio-material innovation with mycelium leather.

Consumer Actions

• Buy fewer, higher-quality garments.

• Support transparent brands reporting chemical and environmental data.

• Wash clothes less frequently to reduce microfibre and dye pollution.

• Advocate for sustainable and ethical fashion practices.

• Align with SDG 6 (Clean Water & Sanitation) & SDG 14 (Life Below Water).

Impact:

• Reduced demand for toxic dyes.

• Lowered chemical runoff into rivers and oceans.

• Encourages brands to innovate sustainably.

The collection is primarily in white, providing a versatile and timeless base that aligns with sustainable design principles by reducing the need for multiple dye processes. I am also learning to indigo dye each piece myself, putting into practice the knowledge and solutions I have researched throughout this project. This hands-on approach allows me to control chemical usage, experiment with regenerative colour techniques, and gain a deeper understanding of the environmental and social impacts of dyeing. By integrating these practices, my work demonstrates that sustainable design is not just theoretical — it is actively applied from concept to final garment.

Through this collection, I am translating research into action, showing that ethical sourcing, natural fibers, and safe dye practices can produce garments that are both aesthetically striking and environmentally responsible. It is a tangible example of how designers can embody change in the fashion industry, aligning with the UN Sustainable Development Goals while advocating for colour, culture, and creativity without compromise.

This project demonstrates that change is possible when designers and consumers act intentionally. By selecting low-impact dyes, supporting ethical production, and experimenting with nature-based or biotechnological colour innovations, fashion can align with the UN Sustainable Development Goals, including clean water (SDG 6), responsible production (SDG 12), decent work (SDG 8), and life below water and on land (SDGs 14 & 15).

My own runway mini collection embodies these principles in practice. Using ethically-produced natural fibers, supporting cultural textile traditions in India, and personally applying indigo dye techniques, I am translating research into action, showing that sustainable, ethical, and creative fashion is not only possible but inspiring.

Ultimately, colour need not come at the cost of the environment, human health, or social equity. When designers, manufacturers, and consumers commit to ethical, innovative practices, fashion can become a celebration of creativity, culture, and sustainability, proving that beauty and responsibility can coexist seamlessly.