Org chart by Moises Alberto ATENCIO GUEVARA

Evolutionary Process

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DNA

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CHROMOSOME

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A chromosome is, like a string made up of DNA and proteins that can be found in the center of cells and holds genetic information in the form of genes.

DNA SEQUENCE

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Is the process of determining the nucleic acid sequence the order of nucleotides in DNA.

MUTATION

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A change in the DNA sequence of an organism’s genome, serving as a source of genetic variation that can be beneficial, neutral, or deleterious.

TRANSCRIPTION

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The way genetic information is transferred from a genes DNA to messenger RNA (mRNA) which then delivers the code to the ribosome for creating proteins

TRANSLATION

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The process by which the sequence of nucleotides in messenger RNA (mRNA) is decoded into a sequence of amino acids, resulting in the formation of a protein.

MEIOSIS

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Is a type of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half, creating four genetically diverse haploid cells. It is essential for sexual reproduction, producing gametes like sperm and eggs. This process ensures genetic diversity and involves two successive divisions: meiosis I and meiosis II.

PROPAHASE I

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Homologous chromosomes pair up and exchange genetic material through crossing over.

METAPHASE I

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Paired homologous chromosomes align along the metaphase plate.

ANAPHASE I

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Homologous chromosomes are separated and pulled to opposite poles of the cell.

TELOPHASE I

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Chromosomes arrive at the poles, and the cell divides into two non-identical haploid cells.

PROPHASE II

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Chromosomes condense, and a new spindle apparatus forms in each haploid cell.

METAPHASE II

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Chromosomes align along the metaphase plate in each cell.

ANAPHASE II

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Sister chromatids are separated and pulled to opposite poles.

TELOPHASE II

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Chromatids arrive at the poles, and the cells divide, resulting in four genetically distinct haploid cells

EVOLUTION

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The process through which populations of organisms change over generations. This occurs through mechanisms like natural selection, mutation, and genetic drift, leading to the diversity of life forms seen today

PHENOTYPE

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The observable characteristics or traits of an organism, such as its morphology, development, or behavior, which result from the interaction of its genotype with the environment

GENOTYPE

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The genetic makeup of an organism, consisting of the specific alleles inherited from its parents. The genotype determines the potential traits that can be expressed as the phenotype

FITNESS

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A measure of an organism’s ability to survive and reproduce in its environment. Individuals with higher fitness are more likely to pass on their genes to the next generation

GENETIC DRIFT

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Is a process of evolution that occurs through alterations, in allele frequencies, within a population and can result in genetic variations over time; this effect is particularly pronounced in smaller populations.

VARIATION

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The differences in DNA sequences, and hence in traits, among individuals within a population

HOMOLOGY

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The existence of shared ancestry between a pair of structures or genes in different species.

EXAMPLE

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The forelimbs of humans, whales, and bats are homologous, having evolved from a common ancestral limb.

TRANSITIONAL FEATURE

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Traits in a fossil species that are intermediate between those of ancestral and derived species, providing evidence of evolutionary change

EXAMPLE

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The fossil record of the evolution of modern birds from theropod dinosaurs includes transitional features such as feathers.

VESTIGAL TRAIT

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A structure in an organism that has lost all or most of its original function through evolution

NATURAL SELECTION

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Natural way of selecting organisms based on their traits best suited to the environment they thrive in and reproduce successfully. A phenomenon that gradually shapes populations over time.

HARDY-WEINBERG EQUILIBRIUM

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A principle that states that allele frequencies in a large, randomly mating population will remain constant from generation to generation in the absence of evolutionary influences such as mutation, migration, selection, and genetic drift.

SEXUAL DIMORPHISM

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The differences in appearance between male and female members of the same species, often related to size, color, or structure, which arise due to sexual selection

SEXUAL SELECTION

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Natural selection arising through preference by one sex for certain characteristics in individuals of the other sex.

INBREEDING

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The mating of closely related individuals, which can increase the chances of offspring inheriting genetic disorders. Inbreeding reduces genetic diversity and can lead to inbreeding depression, where the fitness of a population is reduced.

ADAPTATION

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The process by which a species becomes better suited to its environment through evolutionary changes, often involving changes in behavior, physiology, or structure that enhance survival and reproduction

DELETERIOUS ALLELE

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A version of a gene that is harmful or reduces an organism’s fitness, often becoming a focus in studies of genetic diseases and population genetics

ADAPTIVE TRAIT

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A heritable characteristic that enhances an organism’s ability to survive and reproduce in a particular environment, often resulting from natural selection

NON ADAPTIVE TRAIT

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A characteristic that does not confer a survival or reproductive advantage and may arise through genetic drift or other processes not involving selection

GENE FLOW

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The transfer of genetic material between populations, resulting in changes in allele frequencies and increased genetic diversity.

ALLELE FREQUENCY

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The proportion of a specific allele among all alleles for a particular gene in a population, reflecting genetic diversity and evolutionary change.

BOTTLENECK EFFECT

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A sharp reduction in the size of a population due to environmental events or other pressures, leading to a loss of genetic diversity and potentially altering allele frequencies

FOUNDER EFFECT

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A form of genetic drift that occurs when a new population is established by a small number of individuals, resulting in a gene pool that may differ significantly from the original population.

FIXED ALLELE

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An allele that has become the only variant present in a population for a particular gene, leading to a lack of genetic diversity at that gene focus

DISRUPTIVE SELECTION

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A type of natural selection that favors extreme values for a trait over intermediate values, potentially leading to a population splitting into two distinct groups

CONVERGENT EVOLUTION

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The process by which unrelated organisms independently evolve similar traits or features, often as a result of adapting to similar environments

ADAPTIVE RADIATION

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The rapid evolution of diversely adapted species from a common ancestor upon introduction to new environmental opportunities, often following events like mass extinctions or colonization of new habitats

SPECIATION

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The evolutionary process by which new biological species arise, typically through mechanisms such as reproductive isolation and genetic divergence over time

ALLOPATRY

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A form of speciation that occurs when populations of a species are geographically separated, leading to reproductive isolation and evolutionary divergence.

SYMPATRY

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Occupying the same geographical range without loss of identity from interbreeding

PREZYGOTIC BARRIER

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A reproductive isolating mechanism that prevents different species from mating and producing a zygote,

POSTZYGOTIC BARRIER

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A reproductive isolating mechanism that occurs after fertilization, where hybrid offspring are either inviable or sterile

BIOLOGILICAL SPECIES CONCEPT

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A definition of species as groups of interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups, emphasizing the importance of reproductive isolation in maintaining species boundaries

ECOLOGICAL SPECIES CONCEP

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A definition of species in terms of ecological niches, focusing on how members of a species interact with the non-living and living parts of their environment, and their role in the ecosystem

PHYLOGENETIC SPECIES CONCEPT

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A definition of species based on the smallest group of individuals that share a common ancestor, forming one branch on the tree of life

MORPHOLOGICAL SPECIES CONCEPT

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A definition of species based on shared physical characteristics or morphological traits,

PHYLOGENETIC TREE

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A diagram in a form of a tree showing the inferred evolutionary relationships among various biological species or other entities based upon similarities and differences in their genetic or physical traits.

EXAMPLE

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An example of speciation is the Galápagos finch. Different species of these birds live on different islands in the Galápagos archipelago, located in the Pacific Ocean off South America. The finches are isolated from one another by the ocean. Over millions of years, each species of finch developed a unique beak that is especially adapted to the kinds of food it eats. Some finches have large, blunt beaks that can crack the hard shells of nuts and seeds. Other finches have long, thin beaks that can probe into cactus flowers without the bird being poked by the cactus spines. Still other finches have medium-size beaks that can catch and grasp insects.

TAXONOMY

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The scientific practice and set of principles for classifying organisms and assigning them universally accepted names, forming a hierarchical system of categories such as kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species

NICHE

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The role or function of an organism or species within an ecosystem, including its use of resources, interactions with other organisms, and contribution to the energy flow and matter cycling in its environment

DISPERSAL

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The movement of individuals or propagules away from their parent location, potentially leading to gene flow between populations and influencing patterns of distribution and diversity

VICARIENCE

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A biogeographical process where a species’ range is split into two or more isolated areas due to geological or climatic events, leading to speciation through the separation of populations.

MASS EXTINCTION

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A relatively short period in geological time during which a significant proportion of Earth’s species are wiped out, usually due to catastrophic environmental changes or events

BACKGROUND EXTINCTION

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Refers to the pace of extinction that takes place over extended periods because of shifts or natural competition rather, than sudden mass extinction events.

PHYLOGENY

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The history of the evolution of a species or group, especially in reference to lines of descent and relationships among broad groups of organisms

BIOLOGICAL REPLICATES

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Parallel measurements of biologically distinct samples that capture random biological variation

NATURE EXPERIMENTS

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Are observational studies where researchers study the effects of naturally occurring events or situations

TECHNICAL REPLICATES

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Multiple measurements or observations taken from the same sample under identical conditions to assess and minimize variability due to experimental procedures

CONTROLLED EXPERITMENTS

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A scientific test done under controlled conditions

BIOLOGICAL REPLICATES

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Parallel measurements of biologically distinct samples that capture random biological variation

FIELD EXPERIMENTS

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A research method that uses some controlled elements of traditional lab experiments, but takes place in natural, real-world settings

INDEPENDENT EXPERIMENTS

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Same or different experiments may be run in a sequence, with the sequence of outcomes being the object of interest

ALTERNATE HYPOTHESIS

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Statement in statistical hypothesis testing that proposes a specific effect or relationship between variables, contrary to the null hypothesis

NULL HYPOTHESIS

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Statement in statistical hypothesis testing that asserts there is no effect, relationship, or difference between variables in a study

GENE POOL

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The combination of all the genes (including alleles) present in a reproducing population or species.

BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE

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A formal system of naming species of living things by giving each a name composed of two parts: a genus name and a species identifier, such as Homo sapiens

EXAMPLE

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The extinction event known as the Cretaceous Paleogene (K Pg) happening around 66 million years ago and renowned for wiping out, about 75% of Earths species including the bird dinosaurs is largely attributed to a massive asteroid or comet impact on the Yucatan Peninsula, in present day Mexico that formed the Chicxulub crater. The consequences of this event would result in fires and environmental changes such, as a " winter" caused by dust and aerosols blocking sunlight and causing significant disturbances to the climate and ecosystems that could ultimately result in mass extinction.

EXAMPLE

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In a research experiment examining the efficacy of a medicine lets say scientists aim to establish if a new drug reduces blood pressure levels.The null hypothesis might suggest that the new medication does not alter blood pressure compared to a treatment, like a placebo.

CONTROL GROUP

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The group in a study that does not include the thing being tested and is used as a benchmark to measure the results of the other group