The Revolutions of 1848 sparked uprisings across Italy, but these were quickly suppressed. Despite this, King Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia emerged as a leader for unification, seeking powerful allies. His prime minister, Cavour, forged an alliance with France, culminating in the Second War of Italian Independence against Austria, leading to the annexation of Lombardy.

In 1860, Giuseppe Garibaldi launched a campaign in Sicily, successfully capturing Naples. He handed over control to Victor Emmanuel, who proclaimed the Kingdom of Italy in 1861, though Venice and Rome remained outside its borders. In the 1866 Austro-Prussian War, Italy joined against Austria but faced setbacks. However, Venice was eventually ceded to Italy.

The final piece of unification came in 1870 when the Franco-Prussian War led to the withdrawal of French troops from Rome, allowing it to be declared the capital of the newly unified Kingdom of Italy. Despite this achievement, the new nation faced significant internal challenges, including linguistic and economic disparities between the North and South. Ultimately, Italy's expansionist ambitions contributed to the shifting power dynamics in Europe, setting the stage for World War I.

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The turning point came in 1821 when former royalist Agustín de Iturbide allied with Guerrero, leading to a military force that forced the Spanish viceroy to sign the Treaty of Córdoba, ending Spanish rule. Following independence, Mexico was briefly organized as the First Mexican Empire under Iturbide before becoming a federal republic in 1823. Spain recognized Mexico's independence in 1836 after failed reconquest attempts. The conflict was influenced by political upheavals in Spain, particularly Napoleon's invasion, which challenged the legitimacy of Spanish rule.

Key points include the casta system, which categorized people based on racial background, creating a hierarchy that disadvantaged Criollos (American-born descendants of Europeans), Mestizos (mixed heritage), and Indios (Native Americans). The social divisions and economic disparities fueled discontent, especially following the Bourbon reforms, which centralized power and favored Peninsulares (Spanish-born individuals).

The revolution gained momentum after the abdication of the Spanish monarch during the Peninsular War, leading to confusion and power struggles in New Spain. Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla emerged as a leader of the independence movement, rallying support with a diverse army but ultimately facing defeat.

The struggle continued with new leaders like José María Morelos and Ignacio López Rayón. By 1820, political fatigue set in, and Agustín de Iturbide, initially a royalist, shifted to support the insurgents, leading to the Three Guarantees, which united various factions. This resulted in Mexico's independence in 1821, with Iturbide crowned emperor.

However, his reign faced challenges, including political division and dissatisfaction with his leadership. He was eventually overthrown in 1823 and faced execution in 1824. Despite his controversial legacy, Iturbide remained a respected figure in Mexican history, embodying the turbulent political landscape of the time.

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By 1861, King Wilhelm I of Prussia appointed Otto von Bismarck as Chancellor, who pursued an aggressive policy of expansion through conflict, notably instigating wars against Denmark and Austria. Prussia’s victory in these conflicts led to the formation of the Northern German Confederation, strengthening its dominance.

In 1871, Bismarck provoked France into declaring war, which resulted in a decisive German victory. This led to the proclamation of Wilhelm I as the first emperor of the unified German Empire, which took Alsace-Lorraine from France. Under Bismarck, Germany emerged as a major continental power, but he also faced challenges in maintaining stability, particularly regarding relations with neighboring countries and the authority of the Catholic Church.

At its founding, the empire spanned 208,825 square miles and had a population of over 41 million, growing to 67 million by 1914. The population was predominantly Protestant (63%), with a significant Roman Catholic minority (36%) and a small Jewish community (1%). Ethnically, the country was largely homogeneous, aside from modest Polish, Danish, French, and Sorbian populations. Approximately 67% of the people lived in rural areas, and literacy was nearly universal due to compulsory education laws established in the 1820s and ’30s.