https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t To inform readers about how International Law is addressing climate change, environmental degradation and resource production in the Arctic. en-us 2021-12-02 04:24:34 UTC 2025-11-20 18:40:16 UTC hello@padlet.com sapphireuniform https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924360015 The Arctic is ruled by sovereign states which are in agreement that the Arctic is duly governed by the UN Law of the Seas. Oil and Gas drilling is all but expected from States as they require more resources, such as Russia expanding into the Arctic Shelf through Gazprom. As the Arctic is not controlled by hard law like its sister, the Antarctic, it requires each State to agree to reduce the extraction of Oil and Gas. Concerns about this unimpeded extraction range from ice continuing to melt, to local populations of indigenous peoples, to the nearly pristine fish schools that have swum in those waters.

Regulation of the Arctic is limited to mutual agreements to stay within their sovereign waters. The powers claim to have no desire to regulate it outside of their personal areas as they believe that the Law of the Seas has all the necessary framework to allow the Arctic to flourish. Conservation of these resources is being attempted, but as they come up against sovereign power, there is little that the NGOs in the region can do. 

The resources I have provided show that the constraints to a major regulation of the Arctic remain in the hands of sovereign powers who refuse, as per the Ilulissat Agreement, to do anything outside of their own waters. Likely, nothing will be done until a major spill happens as States are slow to react to climate change currently, we can expect that preserving the Arctic takes a back seat to preserve the resource usage rate that we currently do. 

The challenges that are provided revolve around the ability to extract the resources safely. Since the Arctic States refuse to not extract or limit it, there must be protocol instituted to clean it up. Here is where International Law has actually shined through, in only a single law. While the grand majority of agreements are soft law, there is a hard law that dictates what each State is to do during an ecological disaster of an oil spill. In a system where there is nothing more than just executive agreements, the fact that they were able to unify behind an agreement to protect the environment is a key piece of legislation. Not pictured in this piece is a treaty on scientific exploration as well as a treaty on search and rescue. 

In this space, there has only been a single IGO that worked to achieve these goals and that was the Arctic Council. They are made up of the States that border the Arctic including The United States, Canada, Russia, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Iceland, and Finland. This IGO allows a location for each of these States to come together and discuss what they need to in relation to the Arctic. The Arctic Council allows observer members that have the ability to work alongside the members of the Council to achieve the goals that they need. These NGOs provide localized insight from groups such as the Saami Council and the Inuit Circumpolar Council. They have provided integral support in the creation of the Arctic Council as an IGO, as well as being integral to everything that the Council does in Task Forces, Working Groups, and more. 

Outside of the Arctic, there is the United Nations which has created the UN Law of the Seas that has, as stated by those in the council, become the framework for how the Arctic is regulated. Much of the UN's work is based around the generalities that provide for the rest of the oceans of the world, rather than having anything specifically targeting oil and gas production in the Arctic.

Other NGOs have provided insight and research into the damages that Oil and Gas can cause in the Arctic such as the Arctic Institute and groups such as Greenpeace who focus on greener technology to stop the exploitation of climate-damaging resources such as Oil and Gas. 

Finally, readers may wonder what they could possibly do to halt the exploitation of oil and gas in the Arctic or find a solution to these problems. The most obvious answer is to write to your local congressmen and advocate that they protect the Arctic from the exploitation of this pristine habitat. There are also NGO groups that focus on this to apply this pressure globally such as Greenpeace. Despite the action that they take, the results they get work. Donating time and money to advocate appears to be the best avenue for affecting change. Spreading the word about the damages that extracting oil and gas from this environment would help. Since we are in college, there is a chance that there are groups on campus that could lead you to jobs in the market that would allow you to shape policy, or to provide influence in decisions globally to shift to greener tech and provide a reason to draw down on resource extraction.

]]> 2021-12-02 04:32:00 UTC https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924360015 sapphireuniform https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924360181 Conservation of Oil and Gas in the Arctic is linked via the Murmansk Marine Biological Institute that the impact of Oil and Gas has on the local biological resources. 

While fishing has been understood to be a standard in every country. This article dives into the damages of oil and gas drilling in comparison to overfishing that has occurred historically in coastal regions before regulations were in place. 

I found it interesting that Oil and Gas production does less harm to fisheries in the area than a spill from oil and gas. It helps to explain in relation to other works that if the extraction of ground resources is inevitable, we can hope that fish populations will be safe regardless of what happens. Extraction of ground resources poses its own problems but basing it around protecting fish is not the end-all be-all of environmental protections. ]]> 2021-12-02 04:32:10 UTC https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924360181 sapphireuniform https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924360255 This piece is an NGO explanation of what the Russian strategy for the Arctic is. Specifically, this resource is used for outlining what a singular nation is currently doing with the Arctic in defiance of climate activists. 

This piece explains the Russian mindset in the energy field and gives some extrapolation insight into the other coastal states that require energy. It details their reasoning behind exploiting the Arctic along with the cooperation benefits and failures they have had. Exploring the Arctic is a costly endeavour, both physically as a single nation and monetarily. 

I found it helpful in explaining the mindset behind the countries that are likely to exploit the resources and by using Russia as an example, as a nation that relies on oil for much of their exports, is important in understanding the challenges that oil consumption and regulation of the Arctic have in common.]]> 2021-12-02 04:32:14 UTC https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924360255 sapphireuniform https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924360402 This article from the NGO The Arctic Institute delves into the question of whether the Arctic as a whole is an international issue that needs to be tackled or if it is a region issue. It explains that there is a lack of cohesive action being done on the part of the States in the Arctic council itself as they hold the primary power over development in the Arctic. There is a lack of law being drawn up for the area as there hasn't been any major disaster that requires them to take action. The article goes on and argues that until something happens, the Arctic states are free to sit idly by and do nothing. Many other States have joined on as permanent observers but they do not have the power to do anything about it. I found this interesting to the issue of the Arctic and Oil drilling because it takes a realistic look at the Arctic Council and the States that make it up. There is little preventative action at the time this was written, and as of today, there has been some movement, but not much. Through their argument, we can infer that their solution would be to engage these States in drafting international laws to address the Arctic as they would any other ocean.]]> 2021-12-02 04:32:19 UTC https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924360402 sapphireuniform https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924361865 This is a news story that reflects, as of September 2021, the expansion of drilling in the Arctic. The article explains that while countries are currently struggling with the ability to reduce our reliance on carbon-based fuel and embrace greener forms of energy, there is major bankrolling of drilling platforms that include Gazprom, Russia's major producer of oil. It elaborates that while the rest of the world is attempting to draw down on relying on oil and gas, there is still major funding towards drilling for more oil in the Arctic. This is negating any benefits that have been sought by other States to reduce carbon output. I found this particularly interesting as there are other sources on this, but it highlights that States, even though they see there is an issue will continue to bankroll what they need for energy. It stresses that we are still in the early stages of exploiting the Arctic and that there is a lack of agreements to restrict this from happening. ]]> 2021-12-02 04:33:07 UTC https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924361865 sapphireuniform https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924362230 This journal article discusses the issues of developing Oil and Gas within the Arctic as the Arctic softens and International Law falls behind. The article begins by explaining the hardships of governing the Arctic as it has been mainly ruled by soft law, i.e. simple agreements between States to ensure that it is ruled fairly. This is in conflict with the Antarctic which is ruled strictly by hard law, i.e. treaties and legalized agreements. The journal article is important as it draws the problems related to regulating a "common space" at which no single state can do everything alone. The issues began as the Arctic began to melt allowing fisheries and oil exploration to begin, but each State also wished to protect the fragile environment of a pristine sea.

The document continues on to explain the many different agreements that deal with the Arctic, including one in this project (UNCLOS). The issue that the article concentrates on is that no matter what States agree to by verbal consent, they will still do what they want with their territorial waters. In May 28th, 2008, five of the coastal states came together for the Ilulissat Agreement, detailing that there already is a framework necessary to protect the Arctic and nothing else is required of them. 

This entire piece could be the cornerstone for future research. It explains in detail the issues with protecting the environment while that runs counter to what the States wish to do in the region. Only in the event that it better serves them rather than the resources they exploit, will they do something. This document explains the foundation of what I am attempting to explain here; the challenges of protecting the Arctic focused on a single aspect of resource extraction of Oil and Gas in relation to State Sovereignty.

To create a better future, the journal article does attempt to explain avenues that could be taken to protect the Arctic, but it would still require States to submit themselves to a treaty and ratify it, which with UNCLOS, the United States is still not a party to it, defeating its entire purpose.]]> 2021-12-02 04:33:25 UTC https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924362230 sapphireuniform https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924362382 This article comes from the World Wild Fund, an NGO focusing on animal and nature sustainability. It explains in light detail some of the issues with the Arctic expansion of Oil, mapping, and other issues. I found it particularly interesting as it's an NGO focused on protecting wildlife from the expansion of powers. It contains links to some of their work that explain how the Arctic is being affected by the melting of the ice as States move in to map and utilize the waters for transportation.

In particular, they have a mapping of a theoretical oil spill that could cause major damage. That may become its own resource later on.]]> 2021-12-02 04:33:34 UTC https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924362382 sapphireuniform https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924362458 This article contains statements about the EU's increasing desire to appear larger on the world stage through the use of banning gas and oil extraction. Russia currently exploits parts of the Arctic but agrees in the article to ban it as prices increase. I found this one helpful because it is much more recent, as of around 2 weeks ago and brings a different perspective in how world powers are reacting to the Arctic's natural resources.
I found it helpful in understanding the underlying impact that countries near the Arctic have an interest in it outside of natural resources. ]]> 2021-12-02 04:33:38 UTC https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924362458 sapphireuniform https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924362561 This is the convention on the Law of the Sea from the United Nations. It explains the law of the sea, which is important for the Arctic as that is mainly water. This piece is helpful to establish the Exclusive Economic Zone which plays a large part of the conflict in dealing with the Arctic. It is the key piece of legislation that almost all States within the Arctic Circle have ratified, outside of the United States but they follow its provisions without being a party. ]]> 2021-12-02 04:33:44 UTC https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924362561 sapphireuniform https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924362636 This link comes from the Council on Foreign Relations (CFR) in the United States. They are a nonpartisan thinktank. It gives a good overview of the problems arising in the Arctic as well as recommendations, but it gives a good overview of the backstory of the Arctic and the developing challenges. I found it helpful as it easily explains the back drop for why the Arctic is essential and why States are and will be vying for it in the future.]]> 2021-12-02 04:33:48 UTC https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924362636 sapphireuniform https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924362726 This is an agreement in the event of an oil spillage on how these countries should react to it. It explains the exact methods each country should do if a spillage occurs in their territory. I found this piece helpful as it helps piece together what agreements in dealing with oil have been written and agreed upon. Gives hope that even if we do end up drilling in the Arctic, there is a plan in place for mitigating an ecological disaster.]]> 2021-12-02 04:33:53 UTC https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924362726 sapphireuniform https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924417719  The Arctic Council is an intergovernmental organization that serves as a global advocate and knowledge broker for issues related to the Arctic. It is comprised of eight Arctic states ( Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the United States), six Indigenous Peoples' organizations with Permanent Participant status, and several non-Arctic Observer states and organizations, all of which are involved in the Council's six Working Groups which execute the Council's programs and projects. 
The Arctic is particularly vulnerable to global warming, with temperatures in the region rising three times the global average, but the causes and further effects of Arctic climate change extend to all corners of the world. The link above contains an overview of how the Arctic Council addresses these climate issues and the solutions for which they advocate.]]> 2021-12-02 05:27:11 UTC https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924417719 sapphireuniform https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924417797 This article written by the Chair of the Inuit Circumpolar Council (or ICC, one of the six Permanent Participant indigenous organizations in the Arctic Council), explains an indigenous perspective on climate change the Arctic. The author stresses that the Arctic ocean is the Inuit's nunaat, or homeland, and that the way of life for millions of Arctic people is under threat due to climate change and industrial activity causing instability, unpredictability, changes in migration patterns, the presence of new species, and open water where there should be ice. The author concludes that Inuit should lead in researching, monitoring, and managing the region. 
This article illuminates the role of indigenous groups like the ICC in managing the Arctic. These groups rightly insist that their generational knowledge of the ecosystem and its management should be highly valued by any international bodies seeking to operate in the area.]]> 2021-12-02 05:27:17 UTC https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924417797 sapphireuniform https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924417863 This article in the Georgetown Security Studies Review describes some of the inadequacies in the UNCLOS concerning the Arctic. The author argues that "the spirit of the law of the sea" does not sufficiently address the rapid changes to the ice and environment of the region, and what those changes mean for claims for jurisdiction over Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs). The article mentions Part XII, Article 234 of the UNCLOS, arguing that its imprecise language on "ice covered areas," "particularly severe climatic conditions" and "obstructions or exceptional hazards to navigation" has enabled confusion and competition in Arctic states' claims of jurisdiction over Arctic waters. This article serves as an example of criticism of powerful IGOs and treaty structures that are simply ill-equipped and unprepared to deal with the effects of melting Arctic sea ice.]]> 2021-12-02 05:27:21 UTC https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924417863 sapphireuniform https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924417923 The stated goal of the Paris Agreement is to stabilize the global mean temperature to 1.5-2.0 °C above preindustrial levels, and this study published in Nature is a projection of how Arctic ice conditions would react according to whether this goal is achieved. The research shows that the Arctic would be ice-free once every 40 years at 1.5 °C warming, once every 5 years at 2.0 °C, and at 3.0 °C, which is the projected warming for 2100 based on current emission reduction policies, the Arctic would have ice-free conditions every summer.
This study demonstrates that the goals of the Paris Agreement are good if not necessary for protecting the future of the Arctic. It also shows how much can and will change for the people, ecosystems, and industries in the Arctic on a very short time scale if the international community does not take immediate and serious action on reducing emissions.

]]> 2021-12-02 05:27:25 UTC https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924417923 sapphireuniform https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924417993 The Agreement to Prevent Unregulated Fishing in the High Seas of the Central Arctic Ocean (or Central Arctic Ocean Fisheries Agreement, or CAOFA) was signed in 2018 by the Arctic states and Arctic Council Observer States China, Japan, South Korea, and the EU.  The CAOFA consists of a 16-year ban on any commercial fishing in the region with potential five-year extensions, as well as a joint scientific research program to identify any potential for sustainable fishing. 
 "With the reduction of ice in the Arctic Ocean, it is now feasible that fishing vessels could enter the central Arctic Ocean and fish. The lack of scientific knowledge about the marine ecosystem and the species found in the Arctic Ocean means that such a scenario could be catastrophic. For the duration of this agreement, such a scenario will be prevented."
With this treaty, the Arctic nations cooperatively resisting the urge to immediately exploit the increased access to resources that comes with melting ice, opting for a sound, research based approach for exploiting it later. ]]> 2021-12-02 05:27:30 UTC https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924417993 sapphireuniform https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924418087 This is one example of several international scientific research agreements concerning the Arctic, signed in 2017 by the eight Arctic states and ratified in 2018. This treaty facilitates international access to research areas, facilities, and data, promotes education, career development, and training opportunities, and encourages activities associated with traditional and local knowledge]]> 2021-12-02 05:27:37 UTC https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924418087 sapphireuniform https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924418151 ArcNet is a mapped plan for priority areas of conservation in the Arctic and surrounding seas, developed by the WWF and released in May of this year. This proposal aims to set forth a concrete and research-based plan to maintain the health and biodiversity of the Arctic and to protect the way of life of the region's 4 million indigenous inhabitants by establishing a map of priority areas to be managed by surrounding Arctic governments. 

]]> 2021-12-02 05:27:42 UTC https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924418151 sapphireuniform https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924418211 The 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer is often thought of as the blueprint for international treaties on environmental concerns. It is the only UN treaty to be ratified by every country on Earth, and its ban on chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) has allowed the ozone layer to steadily heal. In 2020, record cold temperatures caused by the polar vortex caused a new, large hole to appear in the ozone layer above the Arctic, grabbing headlines and sparking worries that the ozone layer has not healed as much as previously thought. 
This MIT study shows that without the Montreal Protocol, the 2020 Arctic ozone hole would have opened earlier and lasted longer, with accompanyingly larger increases in UV radiation. The results of this study also demonstrate that there have already been substantial year-round benefits from the Montreal Protocol for the Arctic, further establishing the treaty as a shining example for international achievements in protecting the environment.]]> 2021-12-02 05:27:46 UTC https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924418211 sapphireuniform https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924418268 The International Maritime Organization is the body of the UN primarily responsible for the regulation of shipping, and its Marine Environmental Protection Committee (MEPC) met for its 77th session in November of this year, passing resolutions on a number of issues relating to the health of the Arctic. The MEPC received some praise from NGOs for its resolution to encourage states to voluntarily use cleaner distillate fuels in their ships operating in or near the Arctic in order to reduce Black Carbon emissions, which are especially damaging to sea ice.
The MEPC also received some criticism from other NGOs for failing to pass a resolution aiming to get the shipping industry to net-zero carbon emissions by 2050. This session highlights the disparity between the urgency emphasized by scientists and experts on climate change and the underwhelming level and speed of action taken by international legislators.]]> 2021-12-02 05:27:49 UTC https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924418268 sapphireuniform https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924418330 The Polar Code is a set of regulations passed by the IMO for ships operating in polar waters that entered into force in 2017. The Polar Code goes above and beyond existing codes for maritime activities, with more stringent and polar-specific regulations for safety and pollution prevention, including banning heavy fuel oils in the Antarctic (only discouraged in the Arctic), requiring double hulled oil tankers, and banning the discharging of more types of waste. This regulation represents an acknowledgement that ice-free conditions are likely to be the reality for the near future, and that the focus should be on attempts to mitigate the harm of the inevitable increase in industrial activity.]]> 2021-12-02 05:27:54 UTC https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924418330 sapphireuniform https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924418425 No region in the world has so directly and substantially felt the effects of climate change as the Arctic. The livelihoods of its 4 million indigenous inhabitants and the balance of the ecosystem are likely past the breaking point. The ice is melting and year after year there are no signs of it slowing down. The treaty organizations and NGOs that manage the region have succeeded in passing laws with a genuine potential to mitigate future harm or promote vital research, but these laws are passed with a solemn acceptance of the likely failure to meet the goals of the  Paris Agreement and the reality of the future political battle over control of Arctic resources and shipping lanes. 
Ultimately, the direction of future protection and management of the Arctic depends entirely on whether or not global emissions can be significantly reduced. Though not likely, it is not impossible. The Montreal Protocol still serves as proof that it is possible to get the whole world on the same page about a looming, universal threat to humanity and the world. The clock keeps ticking, however. 
As a college student, it is easy to think that there is nothing you can do to solve this issue. It is this feeling of helplessness and inevitability that allows for widespread ignorance about the severity and immediacy of this global challenge. This feeling must be extinguished and replaced with an imperative to demand action on greenhouse gas emissions and to save our Earth. In the meantime, Arctic and maritime organizations are hard at work making the best of a truly terrible situation.]]> 2021-12-02 05:28:00 UTC https://padlet.com/sapphireuniform/ss7u1btmhybd0e5t/wish/1924418425