Cholera is caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae, mainly through contaminated water or food in areas with poor sanitation. The disease spreads via the fecal-oral route, primarily through contaminated water, food, or, less commonly, person-to-person contact.

Control measures include:

1. Emergency Responses:

- Ensuring access to clean water, sanitation facilities, and hygiene promotion (WASH), alongside public health education.

2. Medical Interventions:

- Treating patients with Oral Rehydration Therapy (ORT), intravenous fluids, antibiotics, and using vaccines in high-risk areas.

3. Long-term Prevention:

- Improving water and sanitation infrastructure, establishing disease surveillance systems, and engaging communities.

4. Support from Governments and NGOs:

- Coordinated efforts with international organizations for resources and technical support to manage and prevent outbreaks.

mode of transmission- fecal-oral

control measures

1. Wash their hands with soap and water after using the bathroom

2. Avoid preparing or serving food for other people.

3. Taking prescribed medications

https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/typhoid#:~:text=Typhoid%20fever%20is%20a%20life,and%20spread%20into%20the%20bloodstream.

Reference: WHO

Causes

The causative agent of malaria is Plasmodium parasites, with Plasmodium falciparum being the most prevalent and deadliest strain in Nigeria. The primary cause of malaria outbreaks is the widespread presence of female Anopheles mosquitoes, which serve as vectors for the transmission of the parasite. Environmental factors such as stagnant water, poor drainage, and warm, humid conditions create ideal breeding grounds for mosquitoes, contributing to the persistence and severity of malaria outbreaks in Nigeria.

Transmission

Malaria is transmitted through the bite of an infected Anopheles mosquito. When the mosquito bites an individual, it injects the Plasmodium parasite into the bloodstream. The parasite then travels to the liver, where it matures and reproduces. After a period, it re-enters the bloodstream and begins to infect red blood cells, causing the symptoms of malaria such as fever, chills, and fatigue. In Nigeria, malaria transmission is particularly high due to the year-round presence of mosquitoes, poor housing infrastructure, and inadequate mosquito control efforts in some regions.

Control Measures Implemented in Nigeria

1. Insecticide-Treated Nets (ITNs): One of the most effective measures implemented in Nigeria has been the widespread distribution of insecticide-treated nets (ITNs). These nets, when used properly, provide a physical barrier and kill mosquitoes upon contact. Nationwide campaigns are conducted to distribute ITNs, especially to vulnerable populations such as pregnant women and children under five years old.

2. Indoor Residual Spraying (IRS): Indoor residual spraying involves coating the walls and ceilings of homes with long-lasting insecticides. This kills mosquitoes that rest indoors after feeding and reduces transmission. While this method has been implemented in specific regions, it is most effective when conducted on a large scale, targeting high-risk areas.

3. Larval Source Management: This method involves identifying and eliminating mosquito breeding sites, such as stagnant water and poorly managed drainage systems. Community efforts to drain stagnant water and cover or remove water containers are critical in reducing mosquito populations.

4. Antimalarial Drugs: Nigeria has adopted policies for widespread use of artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs), which are the most effective treatment for malaria. In addition, intermittent preventive treatment in pregnancy (IPTp) is recommended for pregnant women to protect both mother and child from malaria-related complications. Community health workers play a key role in ensuring these drugs are accessible to people in rural and underserved areas.

HIV causative agent is Human Immunodeficiency Virus.

Transmission is mainly through exchange of body fluids, like semen, breast milk, blood. Can also be trasmitted through trans placental route.

Control Measures is using male and female condoms ,being testes for HIV during pregnancy,using harm reduction services for people who inject and use drugs

Reference: World Health Organisation.

1. Cause: Cholera is caused by the Vibrio cholerae bacterium, which produces a toxin that leads to severe diarrhea and dehydration.

2. Transmission: It spreads primarily through contaminated water or food, often due to poor sanitation. Direct person-to-person transmission is rare, but possible through contact with infected feces or items.

3. Control Measures:

- WASH: Improving access to clean water, proper waste disposal, and hygiene education.

- Vaccination: Oral cholera vaccines are used in at-risk populations.

- Treatment: Oral rehydration therapy, intravenous fluids, and sometimes antibiotics.

- Rapid Response Teams: Deployed to quickly treat and contain outbreaks.

4. Geographic Outbreaks:

- Haiti (2010-2019): Over 800,000 cases, due to post-earthquake sanitation issues.

- Yemen (2016-Present): Conflict-driven outbreak with over 2 million cases.

- Mozambique (2023): Cyclone-related flooding worsened the outbreak.

- Malawi (2022-2023): Heavy rains and poor sanitation led to the deadliest outbreak in decades.

Each outbreak’s spread and response depend on local infrastructure and resources.

Cause: Ebolavirus

Transmission method: Blood and body fluids

Objects that are contaminated with body fluids

Control measures:

Initial response: international aid like WHO, MSF(Medecins sans Frontieres)

Quarantine and isolation

Vaccination and treatments such as rVSV-ZEBOV

Educating communities via compaigns

World Health Organization (2019). Ebola Virus Disease. [online] Who.int. Available at: https://www.who.int/health-topics/ebola#tab=tab_1.

Transmission:

Direct skin-to-skin contact with mpox rash or scabs from a person with mpox

Contact with saliva, upper respiratory secretions (snot, mucus), and bodily fluids or lesions around the anus, rectum, or vagina from a person with mpox

Pregnant people with mpox can pass the virus to the fetus during pregnancy or to the newborn during and after birth.

control measures

• mmediately notify infection prevention and control personnel if a patient is suspected to have mpox.

• Place suspected mpox patients in a single-person room.

• Use personal protective equipment when entering the patient's room.

• Learn more about exposure risks and what's required if you're exposed to mpox.

CAUSES - Chickenpox or varicella is caused by the varicella-zoster virus (VZV), a herpes virus with worldwide distribution. It establishes latency after primary infection, a feature unique to most herpes viruses.(Al-Turab M et al 2018)

-TRANSMISSION - It is most contagious on the day before the rash appears.

• It spreads from person to person through direct contact with the virus. You can get chickenpox if you touch a blister or the liquid from a blister. You can also get chickenpox if you touch the saliva of a person who has chickenpox. The virus enters the body by the nose or mouth and can make you sick, too.

• It can also be spread to you through the air if you are near someone with chickenpox who is coughing or sneezing.

• A pregnant woman with chickenpox can pass it on to her baby before birth.

• Mothers with chickenpox can also give it to their newborn babies after birth.

  -CONTROL MEASURES- The best way to prevent chickenpox is to get the chickenpox vaccine. Everyone—including children, adolescents, and adults—should get 2 doses of chickenpox vaccine if they have never had chickenpox or were never vaccinated. Most people who get the vaccine will not get chickenpox.

Control measures:

isolation for infected patients

use of ppe

proper waste management

environmental infection control.

Mpox Infection Prevention and Control in Healthcare Settings | Mpox | CDC