Glossary by Ashley Arias

Chapter 2: The Neuroscience of Dyslexia

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Dyslexia is Brain-Based

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Dyslexia starts in the brain, Dyslexia is caused by the way the brain works, not by lack of effort or intelligence.

The brain looks different in people with dyslexia

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Brain scans show that people with dyslexia use different parts of the brain when reading.

Signs show up early

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Some kids show signs of dyslexia in the brain before they even start learning to read.

Dyslexia happens in all languages

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Kids who speak other languages can also have dyslexia, and their brains show similar patterns.

Brain scans can show who might struggle

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Brain studies can help predict which kids will have trouble with reading before it becomes a big problem.

You don’t need a big IQ gap to have dyslexia

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Kids don’t have to be failing or have a big difference between IQ and reading to get help.

Smart kids can have dyslexia too

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Some bright students may read just okay, but it's still a sign of dyslexia if it’s much lower than their ability.

Brain chemicals and genes matter

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Dyslexia is linked to differences in brain chemicals and runs in families.

Early help is important

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The sooner we know a child is at risk, the better we can help them succeed in reading.

Chapter 3: Dyslexia and Language

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Dyslexia is a language problem

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Dyslexia mostly affects how people read and spell words, and it’s linked to how they process language.

Sound processing is the main issue

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People with dyslexia often struggle to hear and work with the sounds in words.

Many parts of language are involved

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Dyslexia can affect grammar, word meaning, and how we use language in conversations.

Trouble with sounding out words

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Kids with dyslexia often have a hard time matching letters to sounds to read new words.

Spelling is usually hard

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Most students with dyslexia also struggle with spelling, even more than reading.

Sound awareness is very important

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Being able to hear and play with sounds (like rhyming or clapping syllables) is a big step in learning to read.

Phonemic awareness is key

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Students with dyslexia often can’t change or break apart small sounds in words easily, which makes reading and spelling tough.

Naming things quickly is hard

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Quickly saying the names of letters, numbers, or colors is often harder for students with dyslexia.

Speaking problems may show up early

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Some kids have speech or language delays when they are little, which can lead to reading trouble later.

Understanding what you read can be affected

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Reading comprehension problems usually happen because it’s hard for students with dyslexia to read words smoothly.

Chapter 4: Characteristics of Dyslexia by Age Group — Strengths and Weaknesses

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Dyslexia exists on a continuum

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Some students may be only mildly affected while others are severely impacted in their reading abilities.

Reading fluency depends on word recognition

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If students can't automatically decode enough words, their reading comprehension can suffer.

Listening as a Learning Tool for Students with Dyslexia

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Students with dyslexia may understand better by listening than by reading. In these cases, tools like text-to-speech can help bridge the gap.

Access to learning opportunities

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Reading difficulties should not be confused with lack of instruction. It's important to consider whether the student had proper access to learning opportunities.

Signs of Dyslexia in Preschool

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Early signs of dyslexia may include delayed speech, trouble recognizing their name in print, poor rhyming skills, and limited interest in books.

Signs of Dyslexia in Kindergarten–1st Grade

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Signs include difficulty with basic sound manipulation, remembering sight words, and understanding phonics patterns.

Signs of Dyslexia in 2nd–3rd Grade

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Students may avoid reading aloud, guess at words, have trouble with high-frequency words, and struggle with writing complete sentences.

Signs of Dyslexia in 4th–8th Grade

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Dyslexia may show through poor fluency, lingering decoding issues, and difficulty understanding content without support.

Signs of Dyslexia in High School and College

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Dyslexia may go undiagnosed until academic demands increase. Signs include reading fatigue, word retrieval issues, and a history of reading struggles.

Strengths of Students with Dyslexia

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Many individuals with dyslexia have unique strengths, such as strong listening comprehension, creativity, hands-on learning skills, and problem-solving abilities.

Chapter 10: Special Education & 504 Plans

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Determing Eligibility

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A student with dyslexia may not necessarily require special education services under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) unless their dyslexia significantly impacts their ability to access or make progress in the general education curriculum.

Qualifying for Special Education

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Dyslexia alone does not automatically qualify a student for special education.

Evaluation

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Eligibility requires an evaluation to determine if the dyslexia causes a significant educational impact.

Qualifying as SLD

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If the student qualifies, it’s often under the category of Specific Learning Disability (SLD).

Alternate Supports

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Students with dyslexia might benefit from: Alternate supports such as: Tiered intervention systems, RTI , MTSS or 504 plans.

504 Plans

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504 Plans for accommodations like extra time, audiobooks, or modified assignments.

Qualifying for General Education Supports

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General education supports such as structured literacy instruction.

Dear Colleague Letter-

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October 2015 Dear Colleague Letter from OSERS was a landmark clarification. It addressed concerns that some schools were reluctant to use the terms dyslexia, dyscalculia, or dysgraphia in evaluations, eligibility determinations, or IEPs.

Individualized Evaluations

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Children with these conditions may be eligible for special education services under the category of SLD but eligibility is based on individualized evaluation results, not just a diagnosis.

504 Accomodations

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Accomodations align with UDL principles, especially in the area of Representation, by giving students multiple ways to access content.

Chapter 11: Effective Approaches for Reaching Students with Dyslexia

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Chapter 1: A Twenty- First- Century Definition of Dyslexia

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Brain based difference

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Dyslexia is a learning disability that comes from how the brain processes information, not from lack of intelligence or trying.

Educational Services for students with Dyslexia as defined by law

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California Education Code Section 56335(a) defines educational services for students with dyslexia as follows: “ ‘educational services’ means an evidence-based, multisensory, direct, explicit, structured, and sequential approach to instructing pupils who have dyslexia.”

Reading struggles

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It affects reading fluency, word recognition, and spelling, making it harder to decode words.

Use of Structured Literacy

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Section 56335(a) clearly aligns with the principles of Structured Literacy, a research-supported instructional approach developed to meet the needs of students with dyslexia and other reading difficulties.

Sound processing issue

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These difficulties usually come from trouble recognizing and working with sound in language.

Comprehension problems

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Struggles with reading can lead to poor understanding of texts and less time spent reading.

Unexpected difficulty

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Dyslexia can seem surprising because students may be very smart in other areas but still struggle with reading.

Evidence-Based Instruction

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Evidence from previous successful activities, strategies, or interventions that is likely to be a support to a student.

Hidden strengths

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Many individuals with dyslexia are strong at creative thinking, reasoning, and solving problems.

Early detection matters

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Identifying dyslexia early can help students get the support they need and close the learning gap.

Structured Literacy

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Is an umbrella for all things of What is taught and How it is taught.

Affects everyone

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Dyslexia affects people across all backgrounds- race, culture, and income level don't matter.

Key Components of “Educational Services”

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-Evidence-Based Instruction

-Multisensory Instruction

-Direct Instruction

-Explicit Instruction

-Structured Instruction

-Sequential Instruction

Targeted Interventions

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Understanding that dyslexia is not about intelligence or effort, but about how the brain processes language, shifts our focus to early screening, explicit instruction, and targeted intervention.

Runs in families

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It's often hereditary and linked to genes and brain development.

The How of Structured Literacy Is:

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-Simultaneous Multisensory (Multimodal)

-Direct and Explicit

-Structured

-Sequential and Cumulative

Other conditions

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Dyslexia can occur alongside things like ADHD, dysgraphia, or math-related learning issues.

The What of Structured Literacy Instruction -Content

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Phonology

Ortholography

Phonics

Syllables

Morphology

Syntax

Semantics/ Comprehension

No Single Professional is the support

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Successful support requires support from various disciplines and teachers.

• General education teachers • Credentialed reading specialists • Speech-language pathologists • Special education teachers • Assistive technology specialists with expertise in learning disabilities

Compensatory Strategies-Increased demand for learning might require increased supports

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As students progress into higher grades, the demand for independent critical thinking, deeper analysis, and written output increases significantly. Compensatory strategies for these students becomes essential.

Chapter 9: Screening and Assesment

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Lack of Diagnosis

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One of the greatest contributing factors to lower achievement scores in reading is the lack of early and accurate identification of students with dyslexia.

Diagnosis of Dyslexia

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Dyslexia can have a range of severity and may look different at various stages of life and education. For this reason, some people are not identified as having dyslexia until they are teenagers or adults, and some are never identified. When screening for or attempting to identify individuals with dyslexia, it is important to look at multiple symptoms and indicators as opposed to only a single symptom or indicator.

Screening

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Screenings are conducted with all students in their general education classrooms as part of the typical instruction. Screenings may include checklists, work samples, curriculum-based assessment tools, and informal or formal standardized achievement tools

Assessment

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Assessments gather data through observation, interviews, and formal and informal testing. Assessments are initially conducted with individual students (with parental consent) to determine whether the student may need special education.

Progress Monitoring

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As interventions are implemented in a student’s education, their effectiveness in facilitating the student’s academic progress should be monitored.The data gathered during progress monitoring should help educators determine theeffectiveness and benefit of the intervention.

Universal Screening

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Universal screening” means that all students are screened: the entire grade level or the entire classroom. Screening for children at risk for dyslexia is a critical first step in the identification of and effective intervention for students with dyslexia. It is important that the teacher, who knows the student well, be involved and that the screening instrument has good psychometric properties and has been shown to be effective.

Multi- Tiered System of Support

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The federal Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services (OSERS) defined a multi-tiered system of support as a “school-wide approach that addresses the needs of all students, including struggling learners and students with disabilities, and integrates assessment and intervention within a multilevel instructional and behavioral system to maximize student achievement.”

Tier 1 Universal Screening.

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A universal screening applies to all students. All students should be screened in kindergarten and no later than first grade. Subsequently, students should participate in high-quality, research-based reading instruction in the general education setting.

Tier 2 Progress Monitoring

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Targeted Small-Group Intervention. Students with targeted skill needs in the areas of reading, spelling, and writing receive more intensive instruction

Tier 3 Individualized Intervention with Intensified Progress Monitoring

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Students with the most intensive needs receive even more intensive instruction over a period of four to eight weeks. The ideal educator-to-student ratio is one to three. Student progress in targeted areas is documented and monitored three times a week with materials that are appropriate for their instructional level.