Neural Organization

Neurons - communicate with one another through electrical signals and chemical reactions; do not possess regenerative capabilities like other cells. 

Glial Cells - support cells and ensure that neurons operate in a good environment. They also help to remove chemicals that may interfere with neuron operation.

“Ms. Stone, a third-grade teacher, is doing a unit on butterflies. Children study material in books and on the Internet that shows pictures of different butterflies. To help connect this learning with context, she uses other activities. A local museum has a butterfly area, where butterflies live in a controlled environment. She takes her class to visit this so they can see the world of butterflies. A display is part of this exhibit, showing the different phases of a butterfly’s life. These activities help children connect characteristics of butterflies with contextual factors involving their development and environment” (Schunk, 2020, p.41.). 

Memory Network- strengthened by repeated presentation of information making the neural responses quicker with time. 

Neural Connections- capability of activating appropriate brain portion through stimulation to encode synaptic connections. “With repetition, these connections increase in number and become strengthened, which means they occur more automatically and communicate better with one another” (Schunk, 2020, p.51.). 

Language Learning- “The interaction of multiple brain structures and synaptic connections is seen clearly in language learning and especially in reading” (Schunk, 2020, p.51.). 

“Movement: Studying birds and animals in books can be boring and does not capture their ­typical activities. An elementary teacher uses ­Internet sources and interactive videos to show birds and animals in their natural habitats. Students can see what their typical activities are as they hunt for food, take care of their young, and move from place to place” (Schunk, 2020, p.51.). 

“Elaboration is the process of expanding information to make it meaningful. ­Elaboration can help to build memory networks and link them with other relevant ones. Mr. Jackson’s students find precalculus difficult to link with other knowledge. Mr. Jackson surveys his students to determine their interests and what other courses they are taking. Then he relates precalculus concepts to these interests and courses. For example, for students taking physics he links principles of motion and gravity to conic sections (e.g., parabolas) and quadratic equations” (Schunk, 2020, p.51.). 

“Ms. Stone, a third-grade teacher, is doing a unit on butterflies. Children study material in books and on the Internet that shows pictures of different butterflies. To help connect this learning with context, she uses other activities. A local museum has a butterfly area, where butterflies live in a controlled environment. She takes her class to visit this so they can see the world of butterflies. A display is part of this exhibit, showing the different phases of a butterfly’s life. These activities help children connect characteristics of butterflies with contextual factors involving their development and environment” (Schunk, 2020, p.41.). 

Genetics: “Human brains have a similar genetic structure, but they nonetheless differ in size and structure. Studies of monozygotic (twins show that they sometimes develop brains that are structurally different Genetic instructions determine the size, structure, and neural connectivity of the brain)” (Schunk, 2020, p.53.). 

Environmental Stimulation: “Brain development requires stimulation from the environment. Prenatal development sets the stage for learning by developing a neural circuitry that can receive and process stimuli and experiences. Brain development lags when experiences are missing or minimal. Although there are certain critical periods when stimulation can have profound effects (Jensen, 2005), research suggests that stimulation is important during the entire lifespan to ensure continued brain development” (Schunk, 2020, p.53.). 

Nutrition: “Lack of good nutrition can have major effects on brain development, and the particular effects depend on when the poor nutrition occurs” (Schunk, 2020, p.53.). 

Steroids: “refer to a class of hormones that affect several functions, including sexual development and stress reactions Steroids can affect brain development in various ways” (Schunk, 2020, p.54.). 

Teratogens: “are foreign substances (e.g., alcohol, viruses) that can cause abnormalities in a developing embryo or fetus (Byrnes, 2001). A substance is considered to be a teratogen only if research shows that a not unrealistically high level can affect brain development” (Schunk, 2020, p.54.). 

Mr. Glenn, who teaches 10th grade English, knows that his students’ memories may not accommodate many ideas at once. For each novel students read, they must do a literary analysis that comprises several sections (e.g., plot summary, literary devices, analysis of a major character). Mr. Glenn reviews these sections carefully. For each, he explains what it should include and shows a sample or two” (Schunk, 2020, p.55.).

“Incorporate Decision Making

The rapid development occurring in teens’ brains means that their decision making often is flawed. They may base decisions on incomplete information or what they think will please their friends, and they may fail to think through potential consequences. Mr. Manley incorporates much decision making and many discussions of consequences into his marine science classes. Students study topics such as global warming and water pollution, and he presents them with case studies that they discuss (e.g., a ship’s captain who wants to dump garbage at sea). He asks students questions that address topics such as the potential consequences of possible actions and other ways that the problem could be addressed” (Schunk, 2020, p.55.).

When looking at motivation, there are two kinds of neural counterparts:

“Emotions are feelings or internal events that typically are short-lived and intense and have specific, salient causes. Emotions are considered to be integral parts of learning and memory” (Schunk, 2020, p.64.).

“Dr. Smith-Burton understands that some students might view her elementary social studies methods course as dry and boring. To invoke her students’ emotions, each week she has her students focus on one or two concepts to address in their school internships. For example, reading about learning can be dull, but seeing a child learn is exciting. As her students work with schoolchildren, they keep a log on the children’s behaviors and reactions as they are learning. Her students report how excited they become when they are tutoring children and the children begin to show that they are learning. As one of her students reported, “I became so happy while working with Keenan when he said, ‘Oh I get it,’ and sure enough he did!”” (Schunk, 2020, p.66.).

Brain Myths:

“Brain research is relevant to psychology and education to the extent that it helps psychologists and educators develop a clearer understanding of learning, development, and motivation; that is, it is relevant when it helps to substantiate existing predictions of learning theories” (Schunk, 2020, p.70.).

“Problem-based learning is an effective learning method (­Chapter 8). Problem-based learning engages students in learning and helps to motivate them. When students work in groups (peer collaboration; supported by constructivism), they also can improve their cooperative learning skills. Problem-based learning requires students to think creatively and bring their knowledge to bear in unique ways. It is especially useful for projects that have no one correct solution” (Schunk, 2020, p.71.).

“Ms. Carring’s civics class has been ­studying U.S. presidential elections. U.S. presidents are elected by electoral votes. There have been occasions where presidents elected by gaining the necessary electoral votes have not had a majority (50%) of the popular vote or have actually had a lower popular-vote total than the losing candidate. Ms. Carring holds a class discussion on the topic, “Should U.S. presidents be elected by popular vote?” She facilitates the discussion by raising questions in response to points raised by students. For example, Candace argued that a popular vote better reflects the will of the people. Ms. Carring then asked whether, if we used only a popular vote, candidates would tend to focus on voters in heavily populated states (e.g., California, New York) and neglect voters in states with small populations (e.g., ­Montana, Vermont)” (Schunk, 2020, p.72.).

https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1201249