- So valuable that it has never been permitted to leave Egypt (unlike King Tut)

- 63.5 cm (over 2 feet); siltstone

- Palette-stone for grinding and mixing minerals and pigments for cosmetics (black eyeliner reduces glare of sun); this one is ceremonial—found in temple of Hierakonpolis; might have been used for temple ritual (larger than normal)

- Theme: conquest of lower Egypt and unification of upper and lower Egypt: pharaoh on this side wears hat of upper Egypt on this side and lower Egypt on the other; united under one leader for the first time

- Falcon (Horus—god of the sky) on papyrus plants: also conquest of lower Egypt (where papyrus grew a lot) by upper Egypt

- Hieratic scale: most important person larger and more formal; ground lines (bring order)

- Conquest pose/mace pose

- Composite view (will continue for 2000 years): frontal view of eye, shoulders, profile view of head, legs, 

- Heads of cows on top=sky goddess (Hathor; goddess of love, music, beauty, and joy); identifies Narmer is a divine king; hieroglyphs in center spell his name

- Hat of lower Egypt (north)

- Ground lines/registers

- Conceptual space: prisoners with heads between feet: aerial view

- Feet, heads--side view

- Bull knocking down city wall: king’s conquest of lower Egypt by upper Egypt

- Shoulders, eyes-frontal view

- Becomes standard way to show humans

- Sandal bearer=sacred ground

- Mythical leopards with intertwining necks form circle for mixing cosmetics

- Similar to the Sumerian Standard of Ur

-- Two sides

-- Registers

-- Hieratic scale

-- Composite view

-- Shows conquest of ruler and dead bodies
-- Differences:
--- Ur is more secular, while the palette is spiritual

- Belief in afterlife—objects such as weapons, jewelry, vessels as well as servants: soldiers, musicians, attendants buried with the dead (drugged or hit with a hammer on the head)

- Probably functioned as a stand for an offering to a deity (cylinder seals show a bowl balancing on the horns and cylinder)

- Goats and rosettes associated with gods (like golden calf? Shows why Israelites might have created)

- Gold leaf, lapiz lazuli, copper

- Military victory; read from bottom to top

- Wood with shell inlay, lapis lazuli

- 3 registers: Chariots on bottom trampling bodies

-- Soldiers in middle with prisoners of war

-- Soldiers present prisoners of war to leader on top (hieratic scale)

- Reflects a stratified society where individuals had a particular role in their community: soldiers, musicians, farmers
- Goes from most important to least important (king > workers > animals)
- War side

- Bottom: figures loaded with booty and animals; feast

- Top: musicians, seated figures raise their cups; leader breaks register; chairs with animal leg

- Little overlapping (staccato)

- Perspective of figures: half frontal, half profile

- Function? Sound box for stringed instrument (such as one depicted)?

- Woolley named it standard because he pictured it held on a pole as a military standard
- Woolley found it in the largest cave in Ur
- Purpose unknown, probably not an actual standard
- Peace side
- Profile view
- Wood box, gold, lapis, shell

- Eyes probably inlaid; gouged out during invasion of Nineveh in 612
- Could be the ruler Sargon

- Themes of power and narrative

- Naram-Sin grandson of Sargon; victory over Lullubi (people of Zagros mountains)

- Instead of registers, diagonal lines as they ascend mountain

- Orderly march contrasts with chaos of enemies

- King: large scale, stands alone; bold stance (heroic); next to mountain peak (close to divine); horned crown indicates god; deifies himself (first Mesopotamian king to do so)

- Solar deities above

- Dedicated to moon god, Nanna

- Mud brick and baked brick; a lot of it survived because exterior was fired brick

- Buttresses give impression of strength; upward lines give energy

- Saddam Hussein did restoration in 1980’s

- Parked fighter jets next to ziggurat, assuming that American and coalition forces wouldn’t bomb; proved incorrect

- Four levels

- Plan of a new temple on his lap
- Made from diorite

- Described himself as the “king who made the four quarters of the earth obedient.”

- One of earliest written bodies of law

- Black basalt; over 7’ high

- Property law, penalties (includes “an eye for an eye”—like Hebrew Bible); also trial by river: if he sinks, guilty

- Left: Hammurabi approaching Shamash (sun-god) (shoulders have sun rays); holds rope ring and measuring rod of kingship

- Shows divinely ordained power

- War booty; captured by Elamites

- Over 300 laws; predates biblical text of law of Moses
-  A stele is a tall carved object
- Composite view
-  It’s set up in a hierarchical manner, starting from the beginning and telling a story behind the laws and the king’s right to pass them and make sure they’re kept. Then come the laws themselves and finally there’s an ending dedicated to the greatest of the king. It is hieratic because its shows the power of the king by placing him at the top, saying that his authority was from a god, and giving him a whole section about how important he was
-  It is written in Akkadian, or the court language of the Babylonians, and in cuneiform, or the way it's been written. It’s divided into parts, the first being a description of what is happening in the carving, then a long list of laws. There are more than three hundred, particular laws that are thought to be listed from judgements already given. If x happens y happens. There is also an end part which talks of the king and how he will forever be remembered

- Lion gate probably inspired the Assyrian lamassu

- One of the capitals : Dur Sharrukin

- Walled city—about 1 mile perimeter (much still unexcavated)

- How does citadel of Sargon II express power and domination?

- Walled; separated from rest of town

- Temple and palace stood on mound 50 feet high—above flood plain, shows king’s elevated status

- Every courtyard has a large gateway; every gateway guarded by 2 large animals (lamassu)

- Carved out of limestone

- Embody kings’ authority

- 5 legs: static in front, moving on sides

- All-seeing
- Guardians. They look scary from the front, but they look like they're walking with you and are friendly from the sides

- Message: Assyria will always triumph—resistance is futile

- There is no escape (swimmers try); important part is narrative, not scale or space

- Amazing rendering of lions
- Carved in relief
- Shows the king's power over nature

- Royal palace: 5 huge courtyards

- Faced with fired and glazed bricks

- Ishtar gate=goddess of love and war (represented by lions); dragons=Marduk (chief Babylonian god); bulls=Adad (god of storms); other animals  represent other gods

- Nebuchadnezzar overthrew temple in Jerusalem; called for Hebrew youth to serve him: Daniel, Shadrach, Meshach, Abed-nego

- Nebuchadnezzar’s dream of a stone cut from the mountain and filling the whole earth (Daniel interprets)

- Nebuchadnezzar created a golden image and commanded all men to worship it; Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego refuse and are cast into the fiery furnace

- Neolithic times

- Early pottery! Susa had been occupied for a long time

- Nomad’s gear=portable art buried with dead

- Abstract animals

- Circles of horns of ibex reflect roundness of beaker

- Necks of birds reflect horizontality of beaker

- Early interest in pattern, surface decoration

- Excavators looking for tomb of Daniel
- Ancient Persian art

- Persian empire at its height under Darius (the Persian, not the Babylonian that Daniel served) and his son Xerxes; bigger than Egyptian and Assyrian empires combined

- Capital: Persepolis

- Widespread influences: cedar from Lebanon, bricks from Babylon, silver from Egypt, etc. 

- Craftsmen from all over the empire; international style
- Power was shown by bringing materials from all over into one place

- Fluted column shafts reflects Greek influence.

- Supporting wood ceiling beams

- Stone-near mountains, plenty
- When people wanted to see the king, they had to walk past them
- Used to show power and intimidation because they're huge and looking down on you

- Contrast with Assyrian wall reliefs?

- Theme: harmony and integration across the multicultural empire (still shows power, though)

- 23 subject nations represented in local dress and bringing regional gifts

- Mostly profile view; shallow relief but looks 3-D

- Repetition of walkers=timelessness; perpetual reign, peace, prosperity, etc.

- Wear indigenous dress and bring regional gift to the throne as a tribute (message?)

- Shallow relief but round at the edge gives impression of greater depth

- Most in full profile

- Alexander the Great defeated the Persians c. 331 B.C.

- Figure with stick=conquest pose

- Boats, interest in animals
- Depicts things that may be needed in the afterlife

- First example of an Egyptian decorated tomb chamber showing people, boats and animals in the late predynastic 

-Tomb 100 at Hierakonpolis

- Ka needed a place to dwell—mummification (or statue as backup--serdab)

- Tombs: permanent markers for deceased; expressed status of the dead (most people buried in shallow graves in cemeteries; perpetuated memory; preserved life force (ka); meant to last

- Mastaba=bench (Arabic) above a shaft that goes under the ground

- Sometimes solid (mud brick or rubble); sometimes housed funerary chapel or equipment needed in funerary rituals

- Also objects for daily life and enjoyment

- Statue=alternate place for ka if mummification failed

- Monumental mastaba for a king; steps to heaven? Wanted mastaba to seen over wall around necropolis

- Imhotep: one of first named architects; deified because of wisdom and knowledge of astronomy, architecture, and medicine
- A new type of mastaba to be seen by everyone and show the importance of the king

- Only remaining of the 7 wonders of the ancient world

- Unsurpassed in height for 4000 years

- Built by three rulers (three generations); smaller pyramids for the queens; largest to smallest/oldest to newest:  (Khufu, Khafra, Menkaure)

- Each pyramid had a funerary temple at base and a causeway leading from another temple; funerary complex

- Largest took 25 years to build (Khufu—also oldest); covers 13 acres at base and height of 450 feet

- Limestone or granite(different from ziggurats); Would be covered with smooth white limestone=casing

Who built? Discovery of a town for workers to the south of the plateau; likely that there was a permanent group of skilled craftsmen and builders who were supplemented by seasonal crews of approximately 2,000 conscripted peasants
- The last of the ancient wonders still around today
- Mound of creation, like in their creation story. To help the kings get into the cycle of continued rebirth

- Khufu (The largest)
-- The base covers an area of 13 ½ acres. The blocks used in the pyramid are large, with a commonly stated average of 2.5 tons. Many blocks are indeed smaller than this, the blocks toward the top decrease in size. Some of the casing stones at the base are very large, weighing as much as 15 tons.

- http://www.ancientegypt.co.uk/pyramids/home.html

- During the Fourth Dynasty there was a dramatic change in funerary architecture with the adaptation of the step pyramid into a smooth-sided one. The earliest of these pyramids is attributed to Sneferu, the founder of the Fourth Dynasty.
- The most well-known of the pyramids, considered wonders of the ancient world, were built at Giza by Sneferu’s son Khufu (who built the first and largest of the pyramids), Khafra, and Menkaure. Each pyramid was covered with a white limestone and a gold capstone.

- Priests buried nearby; would also ensure good afterlife

- Destroyed by later Islamic residents of Giza; no representations of humans in art

- The Sphinx is almost certainly inspired by Near Eastern lamassus, serving the same protective function for the funerary temple of the deceased pharaoh.  

- Mud bricks

- Cylinder seal

- Heraldic pose: Person with arms wrapped around animals

- Registers

- Composite view

- Hieratic scale/Hierarchical scale

- Ziggurat

- Stele

- Lamassu

- Orthostat

- Column

- Capital

Egyptian
- Heraldic pose

- Composite view

- Hieratic scale/Hierarchical scale

- Palette

- Registers

- Mastaba

- Necropolis

- Columns

- Capitals

- Step Pyramid

- Canon: Standardized proportions of body

- Ka: The soul

- Cloisonne: Strips of metal in a border

- Cartouche: A block with a name on it

- Hypostyle hall

- Sunken relief

- Altar Stele

- Book of the Dead

Aegean Art
- Fresco
- Megaron
- Rhyton
- Cyclopean masonry
- Casemate
- Corbel arch
- Corbel vault

Greek Art
- Amphora
- Krater
- Volute 
- Krater
- Kylix
- Column
- Capital
- Drum
- Fluting
- Entasis
- Triglyphs
- Metopes
- Frieze
- Pediment
- Contrapposto
- Lost-Wax Bronze Casting
- Agora
- Acropolis

Roman Art
- veristic portrait
- forum
- basilica
- barrel vault
- groin
- vault
- arcade
- oculus
- coffers
- aqueduct
- encaustic
- domus
 -atrium
- impluvium
- peristyle
- tetrarchs

Early Medieval
- cloisonné
- illuminated manuscript
- initial page
- carpet page
- miniaturist
- scriptoria
- codex
- the four evangelists
- westwork

Romanesque
- pilgrimage
- Santiago de Compostela
- barrel vault 
- compound 
- piers
- bays
- apsidiole
- ambulatory
- transept
- crossing 
- narthex
- nave
- reliquary
- cloister
- tympanum
- trumeau
- jamb
- groin vaults
- campanile
- mandorla

- Diorite=very hard stone, will last forever; also comes from distant lands, so shows king’s control

- Egyptian theme of endurance; self-contained, frontal; qualities of powerful king (muscular, Horus wraps wings around head)
- A strong, parament stance

- How similar to Khafra? one piece, solid, frontal, rigid

- Frontality gives presence and eternal nature—never changing; also ageless faces--permanence
- Slate
- Could also be a mother

- How is the idea of unity suggested? Nearly same height (no hieratic scale); both highly polished, smooth, shows body structure under dress, both take a step with left foot; made from the same rock; hat/hair look similar (signs of power)
- Was painted at one time

- Hair echoes headdress; 

- Diet: bread and barley drink (like beer but less alcoholic)

- Aten (sun-god) no longer shown as falcon-headed figure but as a disk with rays

- Animated children
- In a house to remind who's in charge
- Different from older art because it's relaxed poses and royals doing average things
- They think they actually had heads like that

-- Known only through pottery, small bronzes

- Orientalizing (c. 600 BC)
-- Eastern influences: (Asia Minor); Turkey, Egypt, etc.
-- Greeks were good sailors; established settlements all over, brought back influences
-- Influence from the Near East and Egypt
-- “Orientalizing” motifs such as florals, sphinxes, and griffins

- Archaic (c. 500 BC)
-- Started to focus on humans (vase painting and sculpture)

- Classical (c. 400 BC)
-- Persians invaded Greek mainland under leadership of Darius I; Battle of Marathon in 490 B.C.; defeated by Greeks; attacked 10 years later under Xerxes I (son of Darius I); Persians defeated Greeks, took control of Athens, burned and pillaged temples and statues (signals end of Archaic period); Greeks finally defeated Persians in 480 B.C.; classical period begins here and ends at the death of Alexander the Great in the late 4th century B.C.
-- Search for perfect proportions in architecture and sculpture; more naturalism in the human form
-- Democracy new
-- Time of playwrights still known: Aristophanes, Sophocles, -- Euripedes---comedies and tragedies
-- Philosophers: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle
-- Perikles: patron of the arts, focused attention on beautifying Athens at the city’s highest point (acropolis)

- Late Classical (c. 4th century BC)
-- Peloponnesian War (Athens v. Spartans); devastating defeat in Athens, end of golden age of Athens
-- Political instability brought shift in mood; less optimistic view of man’s place in the universe

- Hellenistic (c. 300 BC)
-- Hellenistic period=time from death of Alexander to Roman rule over Greece
-- Hellenistic just means Greek. May refer to the large influence of Greek's at the time


- Greek art and architecture ancestors of western civilization: our idea of beauty comes from Greece
- Represents height of cultural achievement for western civilization: artistic ideals and philosophical models such as democracy
- Dualistic (like Egyptians): order and chaos, civilization and barbarians, reason and irrational
- 3 sources of information: the works themselves, Roman copies, and writings—first to write at length about their artists
- We feel at home with Greek art--familiar

- Our heritage from the Greeks:
-- Alphabet (alpha+beta= first two letters of Greek alphabet)
-- Politics (polis=city-state)
--- acropolis=high city
--- metropolis=mother city (most important, center)
-- Democracy (demos=people + kratos=rule, authority)
-- The Olympic Games (began in Olympia in 776 B.C.)
-- Mathematics (Euclid: parallel lines never meet; Pythagoras: Pythagorean Theorem)
-- Literature (Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey: Trojan War and return)
-- Theater (Sophocles; tragedy and comedy)
-- Philosophy (Plato, Aristotle, Socrates)
-- Marathon 

- Extends to Turkey to east, Egypt;

- Common language (Greek)

- Believed that anyone who didn’t speak Greek was a barbarian (lesser)

- Battle of Marathon (490 B.C.): First invasian by Persians; Greeks defeated Persians; one soldier/messenger (Pheidippides) ran all the way from Marathon to Athens (about 26 miles) to tell the news and died after he arrived (didn’t really happen)

- popularized in first modern Olympic games in Athens, Greece in 1896

- Friezes: (1) A continuous band of painted or sculptured decoration. (2) In a Classical building, the part of the entablature between the architrave and the cornice. A Doric frieze consists of alternating triglyphs and metopes, the latter often sculptured. An Ionic frieze is usually decorated with continuous relief sculpture.

- Suggests sequence of movements: spring (coiled figure) in perfect balance

- The head has been improperly restored and should be turned to look toward the discus. (?) Can pose be replicated?

--- Trajan

--- Hadrian

--- Antoninus Pius

--- Marcus Aurelius

Late Empire c. 300 AD
- Period of anarchy and disorder
- Septimus Severus
- Caracalla—killed wife and son because thought they were plotting against him

In Provinces:
- Rome began as a small Etruscan village;
- Combined parts of many cultures (cosmopolitan)
- Tolerant/syncretic: pay your taxes, we’ll leave you alone (Christians wouldn’t)
- Well-run administrative organization
military—special rights after serving in military for 20 years
citizenship—important (Paul: I am a Roman citizen)
- Language Latin
some Greek
- Calendar about 11 minutes short; changed in 1582 to Gregorian calendar (Pope Gregory)

- Story:

-- As the story goes, the handscroll escaped destruction because a nephew disobeyed his uncle’s dying wish. In the late Ming dynasty, a collector named Wu Hongyu was so fond of this handscroll that he put it next to him while sleeping and eating, even carrying it when he fled in bare feet during the Manchu conquest. On his deathbed in 1650, Wu instructed his nephew to burn the handscroll so that it could accompany him into the afterlife. The handscroll started to burn. Fortunately, Wu’s quick-thinking nephew saved it by substituting another painting, unbeknown to the near-death Wu.

- Travel little by little

- Varied thickness of brushstroke, different strokes

- Detail and faded
- It has a peaceful, meditative quality, its calligraphic brush strokes, its emphasis on harmony in nature

- Seashelss underneath

- His writings form the Qu’ran

- 621 another vision: Angel Gabriel took him from Mecca to Jerusalem, where he ascended into heaven (where Dome of the Rock was built)

- 622 He and his followers fled to Medina: beginning of Muslim calender; 629 returned to Mecca and cleansed the Kaaba of idols

- Follower of Islam religion=Muslim

- Muslims believe Muhammad was last of a line of prohets (including Moses, Abraham, and Jesus)

- 20 percent of world population is Muslim

- Branches: Shiites=leader should be descendant of Muhammad 

- Sunnis= leaders don’t have to be descendants of Muhammad

- The Five Pillars of Islam
-- The Profession of Faith (The Shahada): “There is no God but God, and Muhammed is his prophet”
-- 2. Daily Prayers (Salat): Five times a day, point towards Mecca
-- 3. Alms-Giving (Zakat): Donate a portion of earnings (or good deeds for those unable to donate money) to the poor
-- 4. Fasting during Ramadan (Saum): Ninth month of the Islamic calendar; from dawn to dusk (no eating or drinking during daylight)
-- 5. Pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj): At least once during one’s lifetime; visit the Kaaba (shrine said to be built by Abraham and his son Ishmael)

- Map 9.1 By 750 the Umayyad dynasty based in Syria was supplanted by the Abbasid dynasty (750-1258) in Mesopotamia. Abbasid mosques served as congregational mosques for large gatherings. 
- Capital called Baghdad with a palace at Samarra. Round City of Baghdad was sacked by the Mongols in 1258. Samarra’s mud-brick ruins stretch along the Tigris. 
- Islam is based on the teachings of the prophet Muhammad (ca. 570–632), known as the Messenger, who is said to have received the Word of Allah as a series of poetic recitations (in Arabic, the Qur’an with chapters called sura which were written down in 632 after his death) brought to him by the archangel Jibra’il (Gabriel). The Qur’an with the hadith (remembrances) form Islamic religious practice and law. 5 Pillars of Islam: (1) To become Muslim you must recite “There is no God but God; Muhammad is the Messenger of God”. (2) Prayer: five daily and weekly on Friday at noon for the Day of Congregation, (3) fasting: daylight hours during the lunar month of Ramadan, (4) pilgrimage (hajj): journey to Mecca during the lunar month of Dhu’l Hijja, (5) charity: tithing to benefit the sick and needy of the Islamic Community. (1) Protected status of the People of the Book: Jews and Christians (2) mistrust of certain images: statues of humans and animals as idolatrous, (3) high regard for literacy and individual reading of scripture, use of kufic script for art

- Kufic: One of the first general forms of Arabic script to be developed, distinguished by its angularity; distinctive variants occur in various parts of the Islamic worlds.

- Mughal

-- Akbar

-- Jahangir

-- Shah Jahan

-- 3 emperors: Akbar (ruled 1555-1603), Jahangir (1603-1627), and Shah Jehan (1627-1658) (Akbar descended from Genghis Khan)
-- Akbar wished to unite Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity
-- Collected European art—introduced western perspective

- Kufic alphabet of early Islam; written right to left

- Often decorative designs are actually calligraphy; not a lot of figural art but more designs of words, plants, and geometric designs

-- Hiberno-Saxon: c. 700 A.D.
--- Irish (Hibernians)—never part of Roman Empire; readily accepted Christianity when missionaries came from England in 5th century
--- Became cultural and spiritual leaders of western Europe
--- Developed own flavor of Christianity to fit local, rural way of life: sought solitude (like in Egypt); monasteries in isolated areas; became centers of learning and art
-- Produced Christian books to spread the Word; not so interested in illustrating events but in decoration and design
--- Hiberno-Saxon style combines metal-work animal style of Anglo-Saxon art with Christianity


-- Viking: c. 800 A.D.
--- Scandinavian countries also beyond Roman borders; shared animal style

-- Carolingian: c. 800 A.D.
--- Charlemagne and the Carolingian Revival
768 Charlemagne became king of Franks and established a new empire that dominated northern Europe (continental)
--- 800 became Holy Roman Emperor (named by Pope Leo III in Old St. Peter’s basilica in Rome on Christmas day: successor to Constantine, first Christian emperor)
--- Goal: wanted to bring back glory of ancient Rome but in a Christian context
---- wanted to clean up text of Bible; recognized that mistakes had crept in with copying; gathered scholars to make a master copy
---- wanted to standardize letters, punctuation to make things more clear to read and correct
---- wanted to educate varied societies (clergy) under his reign to worship properly; set up schools in monasteries; --- 1000’s of manuscripts produced
--- Center in Aachen (now Germany; close to France, Belgium, Netherlands)
--- Period of Charlemagne and his successors
---Carolingian = (Carolus Magnus=Charles the Great)

-- Ottonian: c. 1000 A.D.
-- 814 Charlemagne died; sons took over kingdom; lost power by end of century; Charles the Fat last king died 888
-- Dark period: 850-950 (no effective central government, church became corrupt and mismanaged)
-- Political power moved to present-day Germany; reestablished an effective central government: called Ottonian dynasty;
-- Otto I (German) crowned HRE 962 by Pope John XII and revived ambitions of Charlemagne; then deposed pope for conspiring against him; worked on reforming church;
Sponsored many new religious buildings
-- Otto III 983-1002
-- Tried to revive classicism (like Charlemagne); but more German

 

- 230 feet long; continuous narrative; records events leading up to 1066, when William the Conqueror of Normandy (France) conquered England (claimed the throne at death of King Edward the Confessor)

- Harold (Anglo-Saxon earl) and William (duke in Normandy) both thought they had right to the throne

- 230 feet long; continuous narrative; records events leading up to 1066, when William the Conqueror of Normandy (France) conquered England (claimed the throne at death of King Edward the Confessor)

- Harold (Anglo-Saxon earl) and William (duke in Normandy) both thought they had right to the throne

- An aide announced to Harold (with crown—English nobles gave him crown but he had promised allegiance to William) the appearance of bright star

- “These men marvel at the star” (Haley’s comet appeared in 1066 soon after Harold’s coronation; prophetic significance

- Boats below: Normans preparing to cross the English Channel--foreshadowing