Abu al-Walid Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad ibn Rushd, better known as Ibn Rushd or in the west as Averroes was a notable muslim philosopher that lived during the era known as the dark ages. The dark ages for the west was also known as the Golden Era for the Muslim world during that time. He was famous for his work which integrated Islamic traditions with ancient Greek thought and derived a conclusion that lays down the precedent for the modern islamic state,The equilibrium of divine laws and man made laws. The same ecosystem that lives on until today.

Ibn Rushd was born in Cordoba into a family of jurists, he was well equipped and trained with the teachings of the Quran, Hadith, and Fiqh. he was also trained in medicine and his niche area was law (islamic jurisprudence) and philosophy. Throughout his life, he went on to become the chief qadi (judge) of Cordoba. He also served as the physician to the caliph at that time, Caliph Abu Ya’qub Yusuf and his son, Caliph Abu Yusuf Ya’qub. He was assigned by Caliph Abu Ya’qub to provide a correct interpretation of the philosophy of the Greek philosopher Aristotle, a task to which he devoted many years of his busy life as judge.

ON ARISTOTLE
Aristotle's philosophy circled around the concept of natural law, this was the popular view during that time that all things had it'w own course and nature is the governing power in all of those. Aristotle's failure to mention God was what the caliph and Ibnu Rushd feared at that point of time, a basis of only natural law would make mankind be free to do whatever that they wish based on the nature of their beings and creation. the argument by aristotle itslef is paradoxical, if natural law was made by man and man was the natural law then there is no force that governs and control these laws in which what makes man, man is no longer the nature as nature also makes an animal, an animal. by letting natural law takes it course, a man and an animal shares no distinction.

IBN RUSHD'S CONTRIBUTION
In opposing Aristotle to share the values of Islam accordingly to the people a that time, Ibn Rushd created a controversial move that only those who were the metaphysician employing certain proof (syllogism) is capable and competent (as well as obliged) to interpret the doctrines contained in the prophetically revealed law (Sharīah), and not the Muslim literalists (dialectic theologians), who rely on dialectical arguments. To establish the true, inner meaning of religious beliefs and convictions is the aim of philosophy in its quest for truth. This inner meaning must not be divulged to the masses, who must accept the plain, external meaning of Scripture contained in stories, similes, and metaphors. But perhaps his greatest contribution in my opinion was creating the modern definition of a Muslim centrist, a perfect balance in today's political landscape, according to Ibnu Rushd's philosophy, those mentioned literally and explicitly in the scriptures is something not to be questioned, hence, the objects such as natural law is applied only to the extent that it is invalidated by a scripture. things that are not mentioned, however, are open to interpretation to fit the natural law as proposed by Aristotle, this approach is the balance of the spectrum in deciding a law, this was also the approach that got him banned and exiled where he faced his last days in Lucena, much to the delight of the orthodox jurists during that time.

I don’t have many contributions to ummah because I don’t have many specialties, abilities ,highest rank and gifted like others do. So what I can tell is I joined  back then in the highschool the program for smart prayer it suppose to help muslim students to attain a tranquillity when they are performing the prayer. I as sub facilitator . My task is to help facilitator to get their job run smoothly according to the objective of the program , during program I contributed my energy and time to help the young muslim to make their prayer better than it used to be . It is because the organizer’s objective is to keep the young muslim to motivate to a good muslim for nowadays and hereafter.in addition to that , another objective is to give motivation for student to be discipline in their studies and life. The is from the non-government organization which is concern about muslim social life especially for Malaysian muslim and new revert Malaysian muslim.      

 

 

Life

 

Of pure Arab stock, Ibn Ḥanbal belonged to the tribe of Shaybān through both parents. He was still an infant when his father died at 30. When Ibn Ḥanbal was 15 he began to study the Traditions (Ḥadīth) of the Prophet Muḥammad. Seeking to learn from the great masters of his day, he travelled to the cities of Kūfah and Basra in Iraq; Mecca, Hejaz, and Medina in Arabia; and to the lands of Yemen and Syria. He made five pilgrimages to the holy city of Mecca, three times on foot. Ibn Ḥanbal led a life of asceticism and self-denial, winning many disciples. He had eight children, of whom two were well known and closely associated with his intellectual work: Ṣālih (died 880) and ʿAbd Allāh (died 903).

 

The central fact of Ibn Ḥanbal’s life is the suffering to which he was subjected during the inquisition, known as al-miḥnah, ordered by the caliph al-Maʾmūn. But for this great trial, and the unflagging courage he displayed in the face of his persecutors, Ibn Ḥanbal would most likely have been remembered solely for his work on the Traditions. As it is, he remains to this day, in addition to his recognized stature as an expert on Traditions, one of the most venerated fathers of Islām, a staunch upholder of Muslim orthodoxy.

 

 

Achievements

 

The most important of Ibn Ḥanbal’s works is his collection of the Traditions of the Prophet Muḥammad. This collection was heretofore believed to have been compiled by the author’s son (ʿAbd Allāh), but there is now evidence that the work was compiled and arranged by Ibn Ḥanbal himself. These Traditions were considered by Ibn Ḥanbal as a sound basis for argument in law and religion.

Historical scholarship regarding Ibn Ḥanbal and his school has suffered from a lack of sufficient documentation, among other things. There are, therefore, some opinions regarding Ibn Ḥanbal that bear closer scrutiny in the light of new documents and recent studies. Too much stress has been laid on the influence on him of the teachings of Shāfiʿī, the founder of the Shāfiʿī school, whom Ibn Ḥanbal apparently met only once. He had a high respect for Shāfiʿī but also for the other great jurists who belonged to other schools of law, without, for that matter, relinquishing his own independent opinions. He was against codification of the law, maintaining that canonists had to be free to derive the solutions for questions of law from scriptural sources, namely the Quʾrān and the sunnah (the body of Islāmic custom and practice based on Muḥammad’s words and deeds). It was to this end that he compiled his great Musnad, wherein he registered all the traditions considered in his day acceptable as bases for the solution of questions, along with the Quʾrān itself.

 

The fact that the Ḥanbalī school was organized at all was due to the impact of Ibn Ḥanbal on his time. The other orthodox schools were already prospering in Baghdad when the Ḥanbalī school sprang up in their midst, drawing its membership from theirs. The lateness of the hour accounts for the relatively small membership attained by the Ḥanbalī school compared with the older schools. It is, however, not by the number of its members that the importance of the school and its originator should be judged but rather by their impact on the development of Islāmic religious history. In the Middle Ages the school acted as a spearhead of traditionalist orthodoxy in its struggle against rationalism. One of Ibn Ḥanbal’s greatest followers, Ibn Taymīyah (1263–1328), was claimed by both the Wahhābīyah, a reform movement founded in the mid-18th century, and the modern Salafīyah movement, which arose in Egypt and advocated the continued supremacy of Islāmic law but with fresh interpretations to meet the community’s changing needs. Ibn Ḥanbal himself is one of the fathers of Islām whose names have constantly been invoked against the forces of rationalism down through the ages.

Ibnu Haitham or known as Al-Hazen in the Eropean world was one of the famous scientists in the world history. His name is Abu Ali Al-Hasan Ibnu Al-Haitham. He was born in 965 in Basra, Iraq. He was regarded as Father of Mathematician and well-known astronomer who has made substantial contributions to the principles of optics and the use of scientific experiments. 

In his early life, he lived in an environment by which the Muslim world has reached its peak. Islamic civilisation was flourished all over the world. He had the access to study with other Islamic scholars from various fields which includes mathematics, geography, medicine, history, law and others. Ibnu Haitham took this opportunity to learn and grew up as one of the famous scholars in the world. 

Ibnu Haitham became more famous and his name was known beyond Iraq. He once said that he would implement a solution to regulate the Nile flooding and confidence of his abilities. The caliph at that time, Al-Hakim heard on this proposition made by Ibnu Haitham. When Ibnu Haitham and his team failed to regulate the Nile flooding, the caliph was disappointed and imprisoned Ibnu Haitham. During his confinement in the room, he discovered various scientific principles. Among them was the principle of optics that light travels in a straight line and others. 

Ibnu Haitham had written many books and writings. He wrote about 92 write-up and 55 of them can be traced until today. The important topics were regarding optics, theory of vision, theory of lights, facts on astronomy, mathematics, geometry and numbers. Among the famous book that has been relied and referred by the European scholar such as Roger Bacon, Johannes Kepler and Leornado Da Vinci, is Kitab Al-Manazir which revolve around topic of optics. This book has been translated as Opticae Thesaurus Alhazeni in 1270. This book has contributed massive informations and principles with regards to the field of optics and continues to act as reference to all scientist and students of science until today. Another example of his books is, The Light of the Stars, The Rainbow and the Halo, Spehrical Burning Mirrors, The Burning Sphere, The Formation of Shadows, Discourse on Light and many more. 

The contributions of Ibnu Haitham was recognised by the European scientist. The Polish astronomer, Johannes Hevelius has honoured Ibnu Haitham’s contribution to optics. He puts Ibnu Haitham as the equal of galileo in the illustration of his book, Selenographia which was published in 1647. Ibnu Haitham died at the age of 74 in 1040. After his death, Ibnu Haitham’s writings became more influential in Latin than Arabic. The books written by Ibnu Haitham continues to be the reference for all scientist up until today. 

This is Ibnu Haitham’s notable remarks,  “If learning the truth is the scientist’s goal… then he must make himself the enemy of all that he reads.” By this, he meant it was essential to conduct experiments to test what is written rather than blindly accepting it as true. 

     

  

 

                Name: Ilham Bin Saiful ‘Adli

                Matric No.: 1711607

                E-mail Address: ilham19498@gmail.com

                Social account links: https://www.instagram.com/eamadli/

                Abilities/Hobbies: Playing Gusion

                Contribution towards Islam: Da’wah through musical that is Naysid in high school.

 

Now let’s talk about Ibn Sina.

                Ibn Sina or Avicenna in the West is an eminent Islamic scientist who changes the world of medicine. His full name is Abu Ali al-Husayn ibn Abd Allah ibn Sina. Ibn Sina was born around 980 AD. in a village in Afshana which today is located in Uzbekistan. However, when he was born, the area that he was born was part of the Farsi dynasty. His father was a respected scholar while his mother was from Bukhara, the capital of the Samanid Empire, which is now located in Afghanistan. 

 

                Ibn Sina received an early education at his hometown. Having a clever mind and ability in the lesson clearly highlighted him as a child. He always joined the father with other scholars in intellectual discussions. He has the ability to memorize things easily, causing many people impress at him. At the age of 10, he was successful in the Qur'an that make him a Al-Hafiz. Early in life, he gained early exposure to the world's knowledge including the field of Farsi poetry. At the age of 14, he already had knowledge over his own teacher.

 

He spent a lot of time studying philosophy, logic, science, Islamic law, and the work of Euclid, a Greek mathematician. Ibn Sina was intellective, and besides learning, he also spent a lot of time praying to Allah to solve the problems that were playing in his mind. He had the aim of studying the relationship between science and religion, and produced several short writings on Islamic theology, including a discourse on prophets and scientific interpretations of the Qur'an.

At age 16, Ibn SIna studied medicine, and only 2 years later, he became a respected medical practitioner. His medical training was very useful, successfully treating many people. Among them include the Bukhara King, Nooh Ibn Mansoor who has a mysterious illness. Many other doctors tried to treat him but failed. Treatment by him managed to cure the king, and he was very grateful and wanted to reward him.

 

As a person who loves science, what he asks is only access to the Great Samanid Library. Besides Raja Bukhara, with the permission of Allah, he also managed to treat King Hamadan Shams al-Daulah from colic disease (pain in the abdomen).

 

Among other achievements he was writing a number of medical books including the book 'Al-Qanoon fi al-Tibb' or in English 'The Canon of Medicine'. The book comprises 14 volumes, and has been used as a medical textbook in Europe and the Islamic empire until the 17th century. The book deals with infectious diseases related to sex, other infectious diseases, theories and some other diseases.

 

Among his other achievements is the writing of the book 'Al-Sifa' or in English 'The Book of Healing'. This book discusses logic, natural sciences, mathematics and metaphysics. Overall, Ibn Sina is said to have written more than 400 writings covering a wide range of knowledge, of which only 250 of them remain to this day. In addition to 'The Laws of Medicine' and 'The Book of Healing', he wrote 'Book of Salvation', 'Divine Wisdom', 'Book of Sum and Substance', and 'Book of Virtue and Sin'.

 

Most of these books are written in Arabic, although his native language is Persian. This is because the Arabic language at that time was an intellectual language, and most references were in the language, as in English today.

 

In addition to medicine and philosophy, he also has contributions in other fields such as mathematics, physics, music, astronomy and more. He also studied about other forms of energy and the concept of heat, light, force, vakuum and infinity. Ibn Sina's health began to be affected because of an overwhelming adventure with Muhammad ibn Rustam Dushmanziyar, a Kakuyid dynasty ruler. He became a doctor and adviser to the king.

 

Ibn Sina breathed his last at the age of 57 and was buried in Hamedan, Iran.

 

Matric No: 1715311

Usrah Budi 1 Section 23

Email address: adlimusthaqeem@gmail.com

Social account links:
          a) Twitter account:  https://twitter.com/adlmsthqm               

          b) Instagram account: https://www.instagram.com/adlmsthqm/?hl=en

 

Contribution towards Ummah :

About my contribution towards ummah, there was not that much or not too big contribution towards ummah. It was just minor contributions from sincerely from me for the sake of ummah, as I realize that even a little contribution, or knowledge share towards others, it is so important as we can teach other people about Islam, and to open their mind what is Islam, as well getting His blessings. The contributions that I have made was for the past several years, in 2016 where I attended and joined a leadership programme under Yayasan Tun Abdul Razak, I was given a task to do charity, we me and my friends went to an orphanage house. During that time, we did some taaruf, playing games and also some sharing knowledge session, where we taught them about the basics of Islam and how to perform it. We showed them how to take a perfect ablution, praying the right way and taught them how to read Al-Quran. Even it was just a small contribution, but it surely helped them to perform ibadah better. Next, my contribution towards ummah was when in 2017, where I was appointed to be the Head Bureau of Dakwah and Akhlak of Engenius CFSIIUM society. Throughout the year as the head bureau, I already helped to organize some Islamic activities to help Engineering students can apply Islam in Engineering. Other than that, we also have done some activities such as 1 day 1 tazkirah, where we spread a simple reminder through Whatsapp application. This helped them to remember Islam always as even we as student busy studying.

            Sa’ad Bin Malik Az-Zuhri or known as Sa’ad Bin Abi Waqqas was born in Makkah from the descendents of Zuhrah, tribe of Quraisy. His father was Abu Waqqas Malik ibn Uhayb ibn Abd Manaf ibn Zuhrah. His mother was Hamnah Binti Sufyan ibn Umayya ibn Abd Shams ibn Abd Manaf. Briefly, he is Rasululullah’s uncle from his mother side, Aminah Binti Wahhab which also came from the tribe of Qurasy. He always called with the name of Sa’ad of Zuhrah or Sa’ad from Zuhrah to differentiate himself from other people with the name of Sa’ad. Sa’ad was one of the first that covert to Islam, and also include in the ten companions who get guarantee of heaven. To be exact, he was the third of fourth person to embrace Islam at the age of seventeen.   

            He was well known for his loyalty towards Rasulullah SAW and his religion Islam. One day, he got an invitation through a person called Abu Bakar, to have a meet with Rasulullah SAW at the hills nearby Makkah. He then accepts the invitation and be among the first that converts to Islam. His conversion to Islam from his older religion, got some disagreement from his clan and relatives. His mother threatens him with committing suicide for his action to be a Muslim. His mother refuse to eat and drink unless Saad returns to his original religion. However, his love and loyal towards Muhammad Rasulullah S.A.W was even more compare to his strong love toward his mother.

             

            Sa’ad ibn Abi Waqqas Sa’ad known as the nickname of “The Lion Who Hide His Nails”. Hiding his nails because it is said that he is very humble and not arrogant. The lion was referring for his brave, strong and fierce. He always took part in every battle to maintain and protect Islam.  In every each of the battle or war, everyone will be felt calm and steady. It was not only because of his bravery and greatness in battle, but also for his taqwa. In 614, the Muslims were on their way to the hills of Mecca to offer prayer with Muhammad, when a group of polytheists observed them. They began to abuse and fight them. Sa`ad beat a polytheist and shed his blood, reportedly becoming the first Muslim to shed blood in the name of Islam. 

            Saad ibn Abi Waqas was a famous archer. It is so true because he was the first Muslim to shoot his arrow in the name of Allah. At that time, Rasulullah SAW sent 60 people to Makkah because people of Quraisy often violating the contents of Hudaibyah Agreement. Howerver at the end, it end with peace agreement as they send a delegation to discuss with the representative from people of Quraisy.

His bravery and eagerness to defend Islam can be shown historically, as he never skip and absent every battle alongside Muhammad rasulullah. Saad ibn Abi Waqqas was mainly known for his commandership in the Battle of Qadisiyyah and in the conquest of Persia in 636. He fought at the battle of Badr with his young brother ʿUmayr. Being only in his early teens, Umayr was denied access to battle, but after struggling and crying, he was later given permission by Muhammed to fight in battle. He returned to Medina alone because Umayr was one of the fourteen Muslims died in the battle. Sa’ad died in 54 Hijriyyah at the age of 80. His contribution in protected Islam always remembered and as motivation for all of us to always protect Islam.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Name: Muhammad Aqil bin Mustaffa Kamal 

Matric No: 17154863 

Usrah Budi 1 Section 23 

Email address: aqil.mustaffa.kamal@gmail.com 

 

My name is Muhammad Aqil bin Mustaffa Kamal. I am 20 years old and I am from Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia. I am the second child from five siblings, which I only have one sister and all of my younger siblings are all girls. Before I enter International Islamic University of Malaysia, I take my primary and secondary schools education in Bangi, which is nearby from my home. My contribution to Islam is not that much. I was not that active in the field during my schooling days, and even during when I did my foundation studies. However, I keep trying to enhance myself to be a better Muslim by day to day. That is why when I entered IIUM for my degree studies, I have set my goal to join a club that can help me improve to become a better Muslim. That is when I found Akhi Club, a club which is a mentoring club which helps children with poor financial problems, household issues, and disciplinary problems in school. The club will choose these children which need help and will be mentoring them throughout the year. There will be around four to five programs which will be held at their school, where we will show them our best behaviour,, so that they know this is how they should be behaving. We will teach them the basics for them to take the ablution, how to pray salah, how to read the Surah, and many more beneficial activities so that they can be exposed to the Islamic way of living. So, by me joining the club, I hope I can help many children with similar problems and guide them to righteous path starting from an early age so that they will not go to the wrong path. 

 

  

Ibn Battuta 

Ibn Battuta is a traveller of historical importance whose memoirs went a long way in providing a clear account of the numerous countries that he visited during his eventful life. To this day his books are studied by students of history since very few travellers have been able to describe their experiences as vividly. The Moroccan wanderlust started exploring the world from an early age and continued to travel throughout his life. As a scholarly explorer he went to almost all countries which were governed under the ambit of Islam. Ibn Battuta attended the courts of some of the most famous kings in the world and also fraternised with the local people in order to know the culture of the country. Seasoned historians mention that his accounts are without any kind of apparent bias and allow the readers to form their own perspectives. Battuta travelled for three long decades and is still regarded as perhaps one of the most famous travel-chronicler in history. There is no doubt that Ibn Battuta lived an incredibly interesting life and according to some accounts he travelled a total of 75000 miles through the course of his life as a traveller. 

Ibn Battuta was born on February 25, 1304, in the city of Tangiers in Morocco, in a family which had descended from the African tribal clan known as ‘Berbers’. He belonged to a family of legal scholars who served as judges at the time. Although it is not known exactly where he studied, it is speculated that he was a student of the Sunni Maliki school of thought. Ibn Battuta also received education in literature at the school. In the year 1326, when Ibn Battuta was 21 years old, he undertook his first voyage and it was a long journey to the holy city of Mecca. It was a pilgrimage but during the stay in Mecca, he also travelled to nearby Damascus in order to learn from scholars and earn diplomas. The journey to the holy cities of Mecca and Medina set him on his path of being the exemplary traveller that he turned out to be. At the end of his pilgrimage, Ibn Battuta was honoured with the title of ‘El-Hajji’. At a time when mostly merchants travelled the world, Ibn Battuta was one who made a living out of travelling to different countries. He earned an income through handsome gifts from rulers as well as from his status as a man of letters. He travelled to Taizz in present day Yemen and Aden after staying in Mecca till 1330. In the year 1331, Ibn Battuta travelled to Mogadishu in Somalia which was an extremely prosperous city at the time under Abu Bakr ibn Sayx ‘Umar and following that visit he went to Mombasa and Kilwa, which was being ruled by the ‘Kilwa Sultanate’ at the time. Ibn Battuta noted that the town planning in Kilwa was quite advanced. 

Ibn Battuta wanted to be employed by the India’s Mohammad bin Tughlaq of the ‘Delhi Sultanate’ and in order to reach India he first went to Anatolia in 1332, which was then fragmented into pockets of smaller power centres in the years prior to the rise of the Ottoman Turks. In 1334, he travelled to the iconic city of Constantinople and got an audience with the ruling king, Andronikos III Palaiologos, as a part of Sultan Oz Beg Khan’s entourage which was sent to the city in order to witness the birth of his grandson. The Sultan’s daughter was married to the Roman emperor. Following his journey to Constantinople in 1334, Battuta started his long awaited journey to India and like so many travellers of the time he used the route via the ‘Hindu Kush Mountains’. In September of that year; Battuta finally reached Delhi and presented himself to the king of the Delhi Sultanate, Muhammad bin Tughlaq. In India, Mohammad bin Tughlaq, a man of letters, appointed Battuta as a judge and expert on Islamic Law; however, Battuta was disillusioned with the situation in India since it was hard to impose the law in a country in which majority of the subjects were non-Muslims. He worked for six years in India. During his stay in India, Ibn Battuta fell out of favour with Mohammad bin Tughlaq and it was only when he was appointed as the ambassador to the Sultanate in China was he able to get away from the emperor. His last journeys were to Spain and Sudan, the two Islamic countries at the time that he had not visited. Ibn Battuta’s accounts of his time in Sudan, which he reached in 1352 remains one of the best sources of information on Africa from that time. Ibn Battuta went back to his native Morocco in the year 1353 and took up employment as a judge. It is thought that he worked as a judge till his last day and also dictated his memoirs to a ghost writer. 

Ibn Battuta’s most important work in his lifetime has to be the travelogue ‘Rihla’ in which he provided a vivid account of his journey throughout the Islamic world at the time. He travelled extensively for a period spanning thirty years and the travelogue contains vivid descriptions of the culture and lifestyle prevalent in those areas. 

Not much is known about his personal life since the only source of information about Ibn Battuta is his book ‘Rihla’ and according to the book, Ibn Battuta got married to the royal family in Maldives when he was working there as a judge. The exact cause of his death is unknown and according to historians the year of his death is also a matter of dispute. It could be sometime between the years 1368 or 1369. 

Born: February 25, 1304 in Tangier, Morocco

Died: 1369 in Morocco

Best known for: One of the greatest travelers in history

Ibn Battuta spent 29 years traveling the world during the Middle Ages. During his travels, he covered around 75,000 miles of ground which included much of the Islamic Empire and beyond. He is known as one of the greatest travelers in world history.

Why i chose Ibn Battuta and why i was inspired by him is because i myself  likes to travel as i am an adventurous person and i hope one day i can travel to a lot of countries like Ibn Battuta.  As what has narrated in the hadith that says, “Be in this world as if you were a stranger or a traveler.”

There is wisdom behind this hadith and the benefit travelling is you can learn a language and the culture of a country and most importantly, you can ponder upon the beautiful creation of Allah s.w.t.

Matric Number 1625633

Usrah Budi 1 Section 23

Email Khalidwaleed@yahoo.com

 

       My name is Khalid Waleed Rashed. I am Twenty three years old. I am from Baghdad, Iraq. I finished my primary, secondary, and high schools in Baghdad then I joined to International Islamic University of Malaysia to study economic.

My contribution towards ummah is not that much, but I am still trying to improve my contribution day by day. I usually like to help people that need my help. I like to help poor people, and I like to help my friends in studying. I also like to help my friends that do not speak Arabic in learning Arabic language because it is the language of Islam And when they learn it they will be able to read Al Quran and know more about Islam.


Ibn Al-Nafis 

Ala-al-Din Abu al-Hasan Ali Ibn Abi al-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi  (known as Ibn Al-Nafis) was born in 1213 A.D. in Damascus. He was educated at the Medical College Hospital (Bimaristan Al-Noori) founded by Noor al-Din Al-Zanki. Apart from medicine, Ibn al-Nafis learned jurisprudence, literature and theology. He thus became a renowned expert on the Shafi’i School of Jurisprudence as well as a reputed physician.

In 1236 Ibn Nafis moved to Egypt and worked in Al-Nassri Hospital then in Al-Mansouri Hospital where he became chief of physicians and the Sultan’s personal physician. When he died in 1288 A.D. he donated his house, library and clinic to the Mansuriya Hospital ¹.

The most voluminous of his books is Al-Shamil fi al-Tibb, which was designed to be an encyclopedia comprising 300 volumes, but was not completed as a result of his death. The manuscript is available in Damascus. His book on ophthalmology is largely an original contribution and is also extant. His book that became most famous, however, was Mujaz al-Qanun (The Summary of Law) and a number of commentaries that were written on this same topic. His commentaries include one on Hippocrates’ book, and several volumes on ². This script is considered one of the best scientific books in which Ibn Al-Nafis covers in detail the topics of anatomy, pathology and physiology. This discovery revealed an important scientific fact, which up to then had been ignored: the first description of the pulmonary circulation.

The theory that was accepted prior to Ibn Al-Nafis was placed by Galen in the second century, who had theorized that the blood reaching the right side of the heart went through invisible pores in the cardiac septum to the left side of the heart where it mixed with air to create spirit and was then consequently distributed to the body. According to Galen’s views, the venous system was quite separate from the arterial system, except when they came in contact through the unseen pores ³.

However, Ibn Al-Nafis, based on his knowledge in anatomy and scientific thinking stated that,

“…The blood from the right chamber of the heart must arrive at the left chamber but there is no direct pathway between them. The thick septum of the heart is not perforated and does not have visible pores as some people thought or invisible pores as Galen thought. The blood from the right chamber must flow through the vena arteriosa (pulmonary artery) to the lungs, spread through its substances, be mingled there with air, pass through the arteria venosa (pulmonary vein) to reach the left chamber of the heart and there form the vital spirit…”

Elsewhere in his book he said,

“The heart has only two ventricles …and between these two there is absolutely no opening. Also dissection gives this lie to what they said, as the septum between these two cavities is much thicker than elsewhere. The benefit of this blood (that is in the right cavity) is to go up to the lungs, mix with what is in the lungs of air, then pass through the arteria venosa to the left cavity of the two cavities of the heart…”

In describing the anatomy of the lungs, Ibn Nafis stated,

“The lungs are composed of parts, one of which is the bronchi, the second the branches of the arteria venosa and the third the branches of the vena arteriosa, all of them connected by loose porous flesh.”

He then added,

“… The need of the lungs for the vena arteriosa is to transport to it the blood that has been thinned and warmed in the heart, so that what seeps through the pores of the branches of this vessel into the alveoli of the lungs may mix with what there is of air therein and combine with it, the resultant composite becoming fit to be spirit when this mixing takes place in the left cavity of the heart. The mixture is carried to the left cavity by the arteria venosa.” 

Another important contribution of Ibn Nafis that is rarely mentioned is his postulation that the nutrition of the heart is extracted from the small vessels passing through its wall, when he said

“… Again his (Avicenna’s) statement that the blood that is in the right side is to nourish the heart is not true at all, for the nourishment to the heart is from the blood that goes through the vessels that permeate the body of the heart…” 

Ibn Al-Nafis was thus the first to put forward the concept of the coronary circulation.

These important observations were not known in Europe until 300 years later when Andrea Alpago of Belluno translated some of Ibn Al-Nafis’ writings into Latin in 1547 . Later, Michael Servetus described the pulmonary circulation in his theological book, “Christianismi Restitutio”, in 1553 and wrote, “…air mixed with blood is sent from the lungs to the heart through the arterial vein; therefore, the mixture is made in the lungs. The bright color is given to the sanguine spirit by the lungs, not by the heart.” ⁶.  It is worth mentioning that the Church accused Servetus of heresy for opposing the teachings of Galen, and was consequently -with his book -burnt at the stake. Andreas Vesalius described the pulmonary circulation in his book “De Fabrica”, in a manner similar to Ibn Nafis’ description. An interesting observation is that in the first edition of the book (1543), Vesalius agreed with Galen that the blood “… soaks plentifully through the septum from the right ventricle into the left…” Then in the second edition (1555) he omitted the above statement and wrote instead…”I still do not see how even the smallest quantity of blood can be transfused through the substance of the septum from the right ventricle to the left…” . Another similar description was given by Realdus Colombo in 1559 in his book “De re Anatomica” 

Then it was William Harvey who, in 1628, demonstrated by direct anatomic observation in laboratory animals the movement of blood from the right ventricle to the lung and then observed the blood returning to the left side of the heart via the pulmonary vein and again he stated that he could not find any pores in the interventricular septum. He wrote in his monograph, “Exercitatio anatomica de motu cordis et sanguinis in animalibus”: “I began to think there was a sort of motion as in a circle. I afterwards found true, that the blood is pushed by the beat of the left ventricle and distributed through the arteries to the whole body and back through the veins to the vena cava and then returned to the right auricle, just as it is sent to the lungs through the pulmonary artery from the right ventricle and returned from the lungs through the pulmonary vein to the left ventricle, as previously described.” However, he did not understand the physiology of the pulmonary circulation (dissipation of carbon dioxide and replacement with oxygen), which was fully elucidated by Lavoisier in the 18th century

 

 

 

One of the greatest names in medieval medicine is that ofAbu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya' al-Razi, who was born in the Iranian City of Rayy in 865 (251 H) and died in the same town about 925 (312 H). A physician learned in philosophy as well as music and alchemy, he served at the Samanid court in Central Asia and headed hospitals in Rayy and Baghdad. A story is related that he was instrumental in determining the location in Baghdad of the hospital founded by `Adud al-Dawlah, for he is said to have chosen its position by hanging pieces of meat in various quarters of the city and finding the quarter in which the putrefaction of the meat was the slowest. Since, however, the `Adudi hospital was founded in 980 (370 H), more than 50 years after al-Razi died, it must be an earlier hospital, probably the one founded during the reign of al-Mu`tadid (ruled 892-902/279-289 H), which he helped locate and of which he was later director.

The most sought after of all his compositions was The Comprehensive Book on Medicine (Kitab al-Hawi fi al-tibb) -- a large private notebook or commonplace book into which he placed extracts from earlier authors regarding diseases and therapy and also recorded clinical cases of his own experience. The material comprising the Hawi is arranged under headings of different diseases, with separate sections on pharmacological topics. The National Library of Medicine is fortunate in having the oldest recorded copy of this treatise, or rather part of the treatise, for the manuscript contains only the section on gastrointestinal complaints. The unnamed scribe completed the copy on the 19th of the month Dhu al-Qa`dah in the year 487 of the Muslim era, which is equivalent to 30 November 1094.

Following al-Razi's death, Ibn al-`Amid, a statesman and scholar appointed vizier to the Persian ruler Rukn al-Dawlah in 939 (327 H), happened to be in the town of Rayy and purchased from al-Razi's sister the notes comprising the Hawi, or Comprehensive Book. He then arranged for the pupils of al-Razi to put the notes in order and make them available. The Hawi is an extremely important source for our knowledge of Greek, Indian, and early Arabic writings now lost, for al-Razi was meticulous about crediting his sources. Moreover, the clinical cases, while not unique, are the most numerous and varied in the Islamic medieval medical literature.

Europe knew al-Razi by the Latinized form of his name, Rhazes. His Comprehensive Book on Medicine, the Hawi, was translated into Latin in 1279 under the title Continens by Faraj ben Salim, a physician of Sicilian-Jewish origin employed by Charles of Anjou to translate medical works. Even more influential in Europe was al-Razi's Book of Medicine Dedicated to Mansur, a short general textbook on medicine in ten chapters which he had dedicated in 903 (290 H) to the Samanid prince Abu Salih al-Mansur ibn Ishaq, governor of Rayy. The treatise was translated into Latin in Toledo by Gerard of Cremona (d. 1187) and was known as Liber ad Almansoris. It became one of the most widely read medieval medical manuals in Europe, and the ninth chapter, on therapeutics, frequently circulated by itself under the title Liber nonus ad Almansorem. In the Renaissance many editions of it were printed with commentaries by the prominent physicians of the day, such as Andreas Vesalius.

A third treatise by al-Razi that was also influential in Europe was his book on smallpox and measles (Kitab fi al-jadari wa-al-hasbah). His was not the earliest monograph on the subject -- that honor goes to Thabit ibn Qurrah, a 9th-century Sabian Syriac-speaking translator and scholar working in Baghdad who became one of the great names in the history of Islamic science, especially in mathematics and astronomy. Al-Razi's treatise on smallpox and measles was, however, the more influential and was twice translated into Latin in the 18th century at a time when there was much interest in inoculation or variolation around 1720 following the description of the procedure in Turkey by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, wife of the Ambassador Extraordinary to the Turkish Court in Istanbul.

Among al-Razi's smaller medical tracts were treatises on colic, on stones in the kidney and bladder, on curing diseases in one hour (such as headache, toothache, haemorrhoids, and dysentery in small children), on diseases of children, on diabetes, on food for the sick, on maladies of the joints, on medicine for one who is unattended by a physician, on medical aphorisms, and on the fact that some mild diseases are more difficult to diagnose and treat than the serious ones. He also composed a book on the reason why the heads of people swell at the time of the roses and produce catarrh, in which he was apparently the first to relate hay fever to the scent of roses.

Throughout his writings, al-Razi displayed a primary interest in therapeutics, lacking the concern of later writers for refining the classification of symptoms. He was not in such awe of Galen that he refrained from correcting him, but his criticism was in the areas of logic and clinical applications. For example, he said that in his experience in hospitals in Baghdad and Rayy he had seen as many cases whose courses did not follow Galen's description of fevers as did. He also stated in regard to a certain urinary ailment that, while Galen had seen only three cases, he had seen hundreds and consequently knew more about it. While al-Razi was critical of specific points, one can only conclude that he considered the medical theory adequate for his purposes, for he displayed no interest in altering its theoretical foundations.

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With regard to his physical characteristics, he was white with a reddish complexion. He was muscular, tall, solid and bald. He was very strong, not weak or puny. When he walked, he walked quickly, when he spoke, he spoke clearly, and when he stuck, he caused pain.

Story When Umar Was Put to Explanation

It was noon of a Friday. The faithful at Madina had gathered in the Prophet's mosque to offer the Friday prayers.

Umar, the Caliph arrived to lead the prayers. He said his preliminary prayer and then proceeded to deliver his address to the congregation. He began by reciting some verses from the Holy Quran. Then addressing the congregation, he said "Now listen".

A young man from the congregation stood up to say, "We will not listen to you, until you give us the explanation that you owe to us."

The people were startled at this audacious interference. Umar paused for a moment, and then turning to the young man said, "Explanation for what?"

The young man said "The other day each one of us obtained a piece of cloth from the Baitul Mal. Today I find two pieces of cloth on the person of the Caliph. I want to know what right had the Caliph to get a share twice the share of an ordinary Muslim?"

Before Umar could explain Abdullah the son of Umar rose up and said, "Friends, the truth of the matter is that like every other person my father and myself obtained a piece of cloth each from the Baitul Mal. My father is so tall that the piece of cloth that he got from the Baitul Mal did not suffice him. So I gave him my piece of the cloth".

This explanation satisfied every one. The young man who had interrupted the Caliph said, "We are satisfied. You can now proceed with your address. We will listen to you and, obey your commands."

Turning to the audience Umar said, "What will you do, my friends, in case I deviate from the truth one day?"

Thereupon a man rose up and said, "When you wilfully deviate from the truth, we will withdraw our allegiance to you and I for one would feel it my duty to kill you with my sword."

The Caliph said with an apparent show of anger "Man, do you know to whom you are speaking?"

The man said, "Yes, I am talking to Umar, the Commander of the Faithful".

"Then how dare you threat him with your sword" said the Caliph.

The man said, "You are our Caliph and Commander as long as you follow the truth. When you deliberately deviate from the path of the truth you no longer command our allegiance. Then we have the right to kill you, because you lead us in the wrong way."

At this the face of Umar lit up, and a smile of satisfaction played on his lips. Raising his hands towards the heaven he said in a voice choked with emotion "Great Allah, I offer you my thanks that there is no dearth of men among the faithful who have the courage to lift the sword even against the head of Umar when he deviates from the Truth."

Turning to the faithful, Umar said: "I enjoin you to follow me as long as I follow Allah and his Prophet. When there is any deviation on my part correct me. If I deliberately deviate from the Truth do not follow me. Play that you and I may steadfastly keep to the path of the Truth enjoined by Islam."

Umar (R.A.) said: "Whoever concealed his secrets will have the choice (of telling whomever he wants to tell), but whoever speaks or acts in a specious manner should not blame anyone who thinks badly of him. Do not think badly of a word spoken by your brother (fellow) when you can still find good ways to interpret it. Think positively of your brother until you are certain that he is not like that. Do not swear a great deal lest Allah humiliate you. There is no better reward for one who disobeys Allah concerning you that your obeying Allah concerning him. You should seek sincere friends and maintain good relations with them, for they are a pleasure at times of ease and a support at times of hardship."

Whenever Umar (R.A.) sent forth an army he would advise them to fear Allah. Then he would say when the standard of war is hoisted:

“In the name of Allah and upon the help of Allah, proceed with the backing of Allah and His support. Adhere to truth and patience. Fight in the cause of Allah against those who disbelieve in Allah and do not disobey, for Allah does not like the disobedient. Do not be coward at the time of meeting (the enemy) and do not mutilate when you have the upper hand and do not be immoderate when you conquer. Do not argue during fighting. Do not kill women, the aging, and the children. Avoid killing them when two enemies meet and in the heat of attack (in front of your enemy). Do not go to the extreme with regard to spoils of war, distance (your intention for) the sacred war –Jihad- from seeking with it worldly honours, and rejoice at the profit that you have gained from the transaction you have entered. That is indeed the great success.

Uthman ibn Affan was the third of Prophet Muhammad’s successors.  He was known as the leader of the faithful and ruled for approximately 12 years.  The first six years were times of relative tranquillity and peace, however the last years of his reign were marred by internal conflict, and pockets of rebels trying to cause havoc throughout the Caliphate. Uthman is remembered as a pious, gentle, and kind man, known for his modesty and shyness, and admired for his generosity.  He ruled with impartial justice and mild and humane policies, based on his obedience to God and his love for Prophet Muhammad and the Muslim nation.

EARLY LIFE

Uthman, may God be pleased with him, was born seven years after Prophet Muhammad, may the mercy and blessings of God be upon him, and belonged to the Umayyad branch of the Quraish tribe.  The Umayyads were the most influential clan of the Quraish, they were the strongest and wealthiest, and Uthman was their “golden child”, the most beloved, due to his good manners and shyness.  Like his predecessor Omar ibn Al Khattab, Uthman was able to read and write.  This was an unusual skill in pre Islamic Arabia and Uthman became a successful trader and cloth merchant.  Throughout his life he was known as a kind, generous man and even before his conversion to Islam he would freely give money to help those in need.

It was his close friend Abu Bakr who introduced Uthman to Islam and he embraced the new religion at the age of thirty-four.  This was during the very early days of Islam when the men of Mecca were systematically abusing and torturing any converts to Islam.  In spite of the abuse, Uthman would not give up his Islam and in time Uthman was married to Prophet Muhammad’s daughter, Ruqiayah, thus strengthening his relationship to the Prophet.

Uthman formed a very close relationship with Prophet Muhammad, and he gained intricate knowledge about the religion of Islam.  He narrated 146 traditions directly from the Prophet himself and was one of very few people who were able to write down Quran.  Uthman also became a reference point for those trying to learn the rituals of worship.  He understood and was able to instruct others in the rituals of ablution, prayer, and other Islamic obligations.  Uthman also participated in the migration to Medina and here he assisted Prophet Muhammad in establishing the Muslim nation.  Prophet Muhammad even referred to him as his assistant.

The portrait we are able to build of Uthman is that of a generous, unassuming, and kind man.  He was known for his humbleness, modesty, and piety.  Uthman would often spend the nights in prayer and he was known to fast often, sometimes on alternative days.  In spite of his wealth, he lived simply and would often sleep, wrapped in a blanket, on the sand of the mosque.  Uthman was appointed as the third leader of the Muslims after Prophet Muhammad by a council of six men.  He continued the humane and just rule of Prophet Muhammad, Abu Bakr, and Omar.  He cared for the Muslims and expanded the Muslim Caliphate into Morocco, Afghanistan, and Azerbaijan.  For six years, his reign was one of peace and calmness, but the winds of change were blowing over the empire.

Uthman ibn Affan,  like his predecessors was a man of the people.  He was modest, shy, and humble but still his later reign was marred by infighting and rebellion.  God had chosen Uthman to be the third leader but the people of dissension plotted to remove him from this noble position.  Prophet Muhammad had prophesized that Uthman would be placed in a very difficult situation when he said, “Perhaps God will clothe you with a shirt, Uthman, and if the people want you to take it off, do not take it off for them.”  Uthman did not remove his shirt, his love for God and his Messenger kept him both strong and humble in the face of old age and extreme difficulties.