The Tour de France was a sporting spectacle my family and I never missed. Lance Armstrong was our hero; seven times winner; our idol; cancer survivor; someone we respected, and admired. Armstrong’s first Tour de France title was in 1999, and he later went on to win seven consecutive titles (Abt, 2018). Although accusations of doping were voiced continually throughout Armstrong’s career, he vehemently denied the claims (Abt, 2018). Armstrong’s eventual disclosure of his doping changed the way my family and I regarded cycling forever.

Throughout Armstrong’s cycling career he was confronted by numerous accusations of doping, but he renounced every allegation. Fotheringham (2015) states that in an interview with a British sports editor, Armstrong claimed that for cyclists in 1995 doping was omnipresent. However, the belief by Armstrong that doping was widespread in cycling may have resulted in his illegal drug taking activities. Whether or not the prevalence of doping was as Armstrong suggests, leads to the theory of false consensus effect (Morente-Sanchez & Zabala, 2013). The false consensus effect proposes that athletes, who partake in illegal drug taking, inflate the idea of widespread substance abuse among other athletes (Morente-Sanchez & Zabala, 2013). Tangen and Breivik (as cited in Morente-Sanchez & Zabala, 2013) contend that some athletes are motivated to take prohibited substances due to the resolute belief that their peers are also involved in illegal drug taking activities. Armstrong may well have been correct in his assumption that other cyclists were indeed taking banned substances, but in no way does that excuse his actions. 

This unit topic has illuminated my strong belief in right and wrong and the fact that I still regard doping in cycling as unfair, unethical, and reprehensible. A man genuinely worthy of people’s admiration would have fought against illegal substance abuse rather than willingly partake and encourage others to do the same. A report by the United States Anti-Doping Agency (USADA, 2012) revealed that Armstrong was part of “the most sophisticated, professionalized [sic] and successful doping program that sport has ever seen.” The governing body of world cycling, The Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI), allegedly knew about Armstrong’s illegal doping before his disclosure but failed to act on the information (as cited in Forster, 2016). Unfortunately for Tour de France fans worldwide, the corruption in cycling has stemmed from the assiduous machinations of both individuals and the governing body, the UCI. For me, I have learnt that I am still very disenchanted with cycling and even more so now that I realise how entrenched the programme of doping in international cycling was and still appears to be. 

 

                 References

 

Abt, S. (2018). Lance Armstrong. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/biography/Lance-Armstrong

Forster, J. (2016). Global sports governance and corruption. Palgrave Communications, 2(1), 1-4. doi:10.1057/palcomms.2015.48

Fotheringham, W. (2015). Lance Armstrong: I would probably cheat again in similar circumstances. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2015/jan/26/lance-armstrong-cheat-again-doping-cycling

Gleeson, S. (2018). Lance Armstrong says last six years have 'really sucked' while dealing with doping fallout. USA Today. Retrieved from https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/cycling/2018/12/06/lance-armstrong-interview-livestrong/2224338002/

Morente-Sanchez, J., & Zabala, M. (2013). Doping in Sport: A Review of Elite Athletes’ Attitudes, Beliefs and Knowledge. Sports Medicine, 43(6), 395-411. doi:10.1007/s40279-013-0037-x
United States Anti-Doping Agency (USADA). (2012). U.S. Postal Service Pro Cycling Team Investigation. Retrieved from http://cyclinginvestigation.usada.org/

Although I have very little interest in the majority of sports, the recognition of the global scale of corruption in sport has motivated me to learn more. With a small amount of research, I discovered the extent of the corruption in cricket was astounding. I happened upon an investigative media video which claimed to expose “the global scale of match-fixing in cricket” (Al Jazeera English, 2018). The video shows clear evidence of competition corruption. Competition corruption involves players as well as officials who have a direct influence on the outcome of the game (Maennig, 2005). Additionally, the video shows evidence of multi-party corruptors. Multi-party corruptors are linked to organised crime gangs, and this was apparent in the investigative video. Further presented in the video, match-fixing, pitch-fixing, and spot-fixing were attributed to organised crime figures (Al Jazeera English, 2018). Sport is of no substantive interest to me but the dishonest dealings to achieve advantage are something that I find interesting in a criminological sense.

Reasons, why players become involved in corruption, are many and varied, but here, two criminological theories will be examined to promote an explanation. Rational Choice Theory (RCT) posits that when a person is presented with an opportunity to engage in criminal behaviour, they will weigh up the cost and the perceived benefits of that activity and make a rational decision whether or not to engage in corrupt practices (White, Haines & Asquith, 2017). On the other hand, Strain Theory, defined as the pressure on individuals to attain socially accepted ideals when they do not have the means to acquire it, could also explain why some players participate in corrupt dealings (White, Haines & Asquith, 2017). Dissatisfaction with wages, low morale, and an organisational culture of ambiguous guidelines for appropriate behaviour can all lead to player corruption (Gorta, 1998). Why players involve themselves in corruption is a complex and multifaceted issue and one that needs greater research. 

Overall, this week’s unit topic of corruption in sport has drawn my attention to the fact that sport is not immune to crime. It was not something I had ever given much thought too. However, as part of my future learning, I intend to explore sport and crime further and to encourage my curiosity about this topic. 

               References
Al Jazeera English. (2018, May 27). Cricket’s match fixers: Al Jazeera investigations [video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uYlk4izYVmw

Gorta, A. (1998). Minimising corruption: some lessons from the literature. Retrieved from http://pandora.nla.gov.au/pan/65944/20061129-0000/www.icac.nsw.gov.au/files/html/pub2_10r.html

Maennig, W. (2005). Corruption in International Sports and Sport Management: Forms, Tendencies, Extent and Countermeasures. European Sport Management Quarterly, 5(2), 187-22. doi:10.1080/16184740500188821

White, R., Haines, F., & Asquith, N. (2017). Crime and criminology. (6^th ed.). South Melbourne, Australia: Oxford University Press.

In one of our required readings for this week, a passage caught my attention. It was a quote from another author, so I decided to look up their paper and read it to further my knowledge. I also discovered it was incorrectly cited in the original reading’s reference list. Miller, Lawrence, McKay, and Rowe (1999, pp. 496-497) posit that “the International Olympic Committee (IOC) … [is an] immensely powerful civil association of cultural elites … that frequently dictate terms to governments and businesses through a complex relationship of interdependency with nationalism and corporate funding.” I found this to be a challenging concept; that a sporting body could impose conditions to a government. However, Spalding et al. (2016, p. 4) confirm this idea by stating that the IOC could “effectively compel states to subject themselves to the primacy of ‘Olympic Law’ over national state legislation.” Now, as this week’s topic was on management corruption, my mind turns to nefarious interference with governments, but after more research, I found the opposite was true. One example was the IOC dictating to Hitler prior to the 1936 Berlin games that they must “follow the Olympic rules … even if they were contrary to the laws in Germany” (Spalding et al., 2016, p. 4). 

However, the IOC has been challenged with allegations of voter buying for decades (Ingle, 2017). The International Partnership against Corruption in Sport (IPACS), of which the IOC is a member, was formed in early 2017 to formulate ways to stop corruption in sport. They identified three main areas in which to concentrate. Firstly, “reducing the risk of corruption in public procurement in the context of sports events,” secondly, “ensuring transparency and integrity in the context of venues for sport events,” and, lastly, “compliance with good governance principles in the context of sport settings” (Enlarged Partial Agreement on Sport [EPAS], 2017). Hopefully, this new committee will be successful in stamping out management corruption in all sports. 

This week I learnt a lot about management corruption in sport. With independent research, I discovered the extent of corruption in sport in the forms of voter buying, the offering of bribes, brand allocation, monetary kickbacks, and fraud. I also established that a quote in one of the week’s assigned readings was not as adverse as I initially understood it. Moreover, although management corruption will be difficult to eradicate, I think with the right people in place it is possible. With commitment from groups, such as the IPACS, to enforce universally recognised principles of integrity, there is an expectation that eventually management corruption will be a thing of the past.

References

Enlarged Partial Agreement on Sport (EPAS). (2017). First meeting of the informal Working Group on the “International Sports Integrity Partnership.” Retrieved from https://rm.coe.int/report-of-the-first-meeting-of-the-informal-working-group-on-the-inter/168073e07b

Ingle, S. (2017, September 7). International Olympic Committee: Familiar whiff of corruption continues to taint Olympic Games. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2017/sep/07/corruption-olympic-movement-ioc

Miller, T., Lawrence, G., McKay, J., & Rowe, D. (1999). Playing the world. Peace Review, 11(4), 495-498. doi:10.1080/10402659908426297

Spalding, A., Barr, P., Flores, A., Frieman, S., Gavin, K., Klink, T., … Van Orden, R. (Eds.). (2016). Olympic anti-corruption report: Brazil and Rio 2016 games. Retrieved from https://law.richmond.edu/olympics/chapters/brazil-chapter3.pdf

This topic also made me think about an infamous tackle in American football. In a 1978 pre-season game, Oakland Raiders Safety, Jack Tatum, tackled New England Patriots wide receiver Darryl Stingley that resulted in Stingley becoming a quadriplegic. No on-field penalty was called because, at the time, the tackle was legal within the rules of the game. Tatum was quoted as saying that although he regretted the incident, he was only doing his job (Schwartz, 1978). Tatum was well known for hard hits and was nicknamed the ‘Assassin’ (Battista, 2010). In Tatum’s book ‘They call me Assassin,’ he states “I like to believe that my best hits border on felonious assault” (Battista, 2010). According to Smiths classifications of on-field violence in sport, Tatum’s tackle would fit the brutal body contact typology (Matthews & Channon, 2017). Incredibly, no charges were ever brought upon Tatum for the life-changing tackle on Springley.

In Australia, Rugby League has a huge following. I, for one, don’t follow the game but am well aware of the happenings in the weekly games thanks in part to the media. The governing body of Rugby League in Australia is the Australian Rugby League Commission (ARL), and over the years they have adapted the rules to encourage greater player safety. Lutton and Walter (2014) claim that one incident was pivotal to the introduction of guidelines for on-field player safety, and it happened in the 2013 series State of Origin game when Paul Gallen punched Nate Myles. The decision to sanction players for fighting has resulted in less on-field violence, but it has not met with favour from some fans. Calls for the players to ‘bring back the biff’ were soon heard with an accompanying song, T-shirts made available, and a social media page was created (The8thark, 2011). The term ‘bring back the biff’ means to allow players to fight with no penalty.

I had only ever thought of violence in sport as what happens on the playing field, but this week I also learnt that it could include violence off of the field as well. These types of violence could include, crowd violence, violence from people in authority such as coaches, and violence committed by the sporting community against women, children, ethnic and sexual minorities, and the disabled (Parent & Fortier, 2018). This week’s topic has made me think intensely about violence in sport especially about what happens after the final whistle has blown. 

                    References
Matthews, C., & Channon, A. (2017). Understanding sports violence: Revisiting foundational explorations. Sport in Society, 20(7), 751-767. https://doi.org/10.1080/17430437.2016.1179735

Schwartz, L. (1978). Stingley paralyzed after being clocked by Tatum. Retrieved from https://web.archive.org/web/20070420020134/http://espn-i.starwave.com/classic/s/moment010812-stingley-paralyzed.html

Parent, S., & Fortier, K. (2018). Comprehensive overview of the problem of violence against athletes in sport. Journal of Sport & Social Issues, 42(4), 227–246. doi:10.1177/0193723518759448

Battista, J. (2010, July 27). Jack Tatum, whose tackle paralyzed player, dies at 61. New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/28/sports/football/28tatum.html

The8thark. (2011, September 12). Am I ever gonna see the biff again (music video I made)-Lots of biff. [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=41FZF53ajpk

Lutton, P., Walter, B. (2014, May 27). The punch: Paul Gallen, Nate Myles and the death of Origin fights. The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved from https://www.smh.com.au/sport/nrl/the-punch-paul-gallen-nate-myles-and-the-death-of-origin-fights-20140527-zrpo8.html

In our other lecture, the topic of crime and corruption in eSports was discussed. Rapidly growing in popularity, eSports is a form of sporting competition where participants use computers or gaming consoles to connect globally and play video games competing against other players. Because eSports is a relatively new concept, most governments worldwide do not recognise it as a sport in the traditional sense resulting in problems concerning governance. Without a global governing body, crime and corruption can occur unchecked. With large amounts of money as prizes, the temptation for corruption to develop is heightened. Given the young age of the majority of players, the temptation to hack the game, to fix matches, illegally gambl, and to take stimulant drugs are all primary concerns. Silverman (as cited in Holden, Rodenberg & Kaburakis, 2017) claimed the game Counter-strike: Global Offensive (CS:GO) was worth nearly seven and a half billion to the gambling industry. Now that is of concern to me, especially if underage children are engaged in illegal gambling. 

Two very different topics this week have had me thinking about how sport in the future may look. For one, I think the Olympics should be held in one designated place. This would lessen the opportunity for some types of corruption to take place. Athens is the obvious location as it is the birthplace of the Olympics. Funding for the infrastructure and maintenance should be collectively financed by all participating countries as a percentage of their global economic standing. Secondly, empirical research of eSports and the formation of a global governing body must be undertaken to restrict illegal gambling and to codify the standards of fair and ethical play. The future of sport is looking very interesting, and I will continue to keep informed of the latest developments.

                   References

Grebey, J., & Shaw, G. (2018, February 26). 30 eerie pictures that show what happens to Olympic venues after the games end. Insider. Retrieved from https://www.thisisinsider.com/abandoned-olympic-venues-current-day-pictures-2016-5#the-site-remained-untouched-for-months-six-months-after-the-closing-ceremony-trash-from-the-games-was-still-visible-30

Holden, J. T., Rodenberg, R. M., & Kaburakis, A. (2017). Esports corruption: Gambling, doping, and global governance. Maryland Journal of International Law, 32(1), 236-273. Retrieved from http://web.b.ebscohost.com

International Olympic Committee (IOC). (2017). Host city contract: Operational requirements. Retrieved from https://stillmed.olympic.org/media/Document%20Library/OlympicOrg/Documents/Host-City-Elections/XXXIII-Olympiad-2024/Host-City-Contract-2024-Operational-Requirements.pdf

Martin, B. (2000). Design flaws of the Olympics. Social Alternatives, 19(2), 19-23. Retrieved fromhttps://search-informit-com-au

Menih, H. (Producer). (2019, January 15). Sporting mega-events and society: Part 1. [Video webcast]. In CRIM388: Sport and crime. Armidale, Australia: University of New England. Retrieved from http://www.une.edu.au

In my town there was a skate bowl tucked away in a place situated away from the main centre of the township. Graffiti, vandalism, sexual assaults, assaults, prostitution, drug taking, and dealing were all occurring at this skate park. Using the theory of crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED) the local council proposed a new skate park be built in the centre of town. The area is located equidistant between the high school and the central business district, on a corner block with clear sight lines from both streets. At the new skate park, criminal activity has significantly declined in comparison to the old skate park. This is an excellent example of how CPTED can be used to promote sporting activities for youth but can also be used as a crime prevention tool. CPTED is a concept I am very interested in, and I am always looking for examples in my community. 

Rehabilitation through sporting activities is another idea I had not fully considered. This week’s reading by Nelson, Specian, Tracey and DeMello (2006) highlighted the benefits of physical activity on offender’s well-being and the rehabilitative effects from their participation in an exercise program. The exercise program culminated in a reduction of the offender’s feelings of depression, stress, anxiety, and resulted in positive mental and physical improvements (Nelson et al., 2006). Improving an offender’s mental health must be a starting point for rehabilitation and involvement in exercise programs and sport appears to be a constructive way forward. A follow on study is required to ascertain if released offenders experienced a reduction in criminal behaviour due to the exercise program.

I have thoroughly enjoyed my learning experience with CRIM388 sport and crime. The unit has encouraged me to reflect on issues I had not previously entertained. Corruption in sport, either from an individual or management position can have enormous consequences on the outcome of sporting events. Large amounts of money are involved in all stages of sport, from the construction of sporting venues, sponsorship deals with athletes and teams, and legal and illegal gambling. The theory of rational choice can explain the temptation to profit from sport illegally. Substance abuse can be seen in all sports even in eSports which I found astonishing as the age of competitors is principally younger people. Violence in sport is something I was aware of, but it is the off-field violence resulting from sport that stimulated my interest. The likening of the Olympic games to low-intensity warfare had me thinking about the IOC and their involvement in the host countries affairs before and after the event. Crime prevention and the rehabilitative effects of exercise and sport is showing promise but needs further review. Considering the small amount I knew about crime and sport; this unit has been informative and unexpectedly enjoyable.
References

Nambour New Skatepark. (n.d). Retrieved from https://www.skateboard.com.au/skateparks/australia/nambour-new--skatepark/

Nambour Skate Park. (n.d). Retrieved from https://www.skateboard.com.au/skateparks/australia/nambour-skate-park/

Nelson, M., Specian, V. L., Tracy, N. C., & Demello, J. J. (2006). The effects of moderate physical activity on offenders in a rehabilitative program. Journal of Correctional Education, 57(4), 276–285. Retrieved from https://search-proquest-com