-The simplest carbohydrate 

-Cannot be hydrolyzed into a simpler sugar 

-Consists of formulas that are multiples of “CH₂O” 

-e.x Glucose , fructose , galactose (C6H12O6), 

-Classified by the number of carbons in the carbon chain and the position of the carbonyl group 

-If the chain contains a ketone group, the monosaccharide would be known as ketose 

-if the chain contains an aldehyde group, the monosaccharide would be known as an aldose 

- the number of each carbon chain of a monosaccharide usually ranges from 3=7 carbons , but most contain 5-6 carbons 

-Are usually colourless, water soluble and crystalline solids

-Monosaccharides are the fuels cells and can be used as raw materials to build molecules 

-The building blocks of carbohydrates 

-a large molecule composed of many small monosaccharides

-the function of the polysaccharides are determined by its sugar makeup and the position of it’s glycosidic linkages (linear/ highly compact )

-Polysaccharides take on storage and stuctural roles 

-ex.compact polymers like  starch is used for storage in plants 

-e.x linear polymers like cellulose /chitin are used for structural support in plants 

-a polysaccharide used for storage in plants

-plants store extra starch in the form of granules within chloroplasts 

-Glycogen is used for storage in animals and is stored in the liver/ muscles 

-when there is a demand for sugar, hydrolysis occurs and glycogen releases glucose 

-Cellulose is a polysaccharides used in the structural build up of plants

-cellulose is a polymer of glucose but the glycosidic linkages differ 

-Forms when a dehydration process joins two monosaccharides 

-A sugar that is formed when two monosaccharides are linked together by a glycosidic link (covalent bond)

-e.x When two glucose molecules join together to form maltose / when glucose and fructose join together to form sucrose (sucrose, lactose and maltose)

-They are crystalline and water soluble 

Function 

-disaccharides are used to transport monosaccharides between cells 

-a class of a large biological molecule

-the most important lipids are fats, steroids and phospholipids

-fats are insoluble in water because water is polar and lipids are not  

Structure 

-insoluble in water 

-mostly consists of hydrocarbon regions

-constructed using glycerol and fatty acids 

-glycerol consists of a 3 carbon alcohol chain with a hydroxyl group attached to each carbon

-fatty acids has a carbonyl group attached to a long carbon skeleton 

-a triglyceride is formed when 3 fatty acids are combined with a glycerol through an ester linkage

-Fatty acids can vary in length due to the different number of carbons used making the chain and the number of double bonds consisted in a chain
Functions

-are typically used for energy storage and organ insulation 
-it can also be used for signaling and act as structural membranes for cells (phospholipids)

-Cholesterol is a type of steroids and can be found in animal membranes 

-too much cholesterol is not good for the human body and can lead to cardiovascular diseases 

-unsaturated fatty acids -contains double bonds 

-are loosely packed and is usually liquid in room temperature 

-can be found in olives, nuts , etc. 

-is a healthier option compared to saturated fats 

Monounsaturated fats 

-unsaturated fats that only contain one double bond

Polyunsaturated fats

-unsaturated fats that contain more than one double bond 

-plant and seeds are usually unsaturated fats 

-Do not contain a double bond 

-have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms bonded to it 

-solid at room temperature 

-most saturated fats are animal fats

-unsaturated fats can be converted to saturated fats through the process of hydrogenation (adding hydrogen )

-trans fat causes the risk of cardiovascular disease to become higher compared to saturated fats 

-when two fatty acids and a phosphate group is attached to glycerol 

-the tails of a phospholipid are hydrophobic, meaning they are afraid of water and tend to avoid it 

-the head of the phospholipid is hydrophilic, meaning that it loves water. 

-bilayers are formed when phospholipids are added to water 

-in this layer, the head points out towards the water and the tails shift in, trying to avoid the water

-this forms a boundary between the cell and it’s external environment 

-is in every nucleus of each cell 

-contains many genes 

-found in all prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells 
-sugar is a dioxyribose

-formed in a double helix structure, where two polynucleotides spiral around an imaginary axis

-runs in an opposite 5’---> 3’ directions from each other, this is referred to as antiparallel  

-Complementary base pairing where Adenine only forms hydrogen bonds with thymine. Guanine only forms hydrogen bonds with cytosine (AT/ GC)

-this makes it possible for two identical DNA molecules to  be formed 

-it would be DNA if it contains thymine and it would RNA if it contains uracil 

Function 

-Carries genetic information 

-may be used to solve crimes 

-single stranded bipolymer , unlike DNA 
-sugar is a ribose

-consists of ribose nucleotides (nitrogenous bases attached to ribose sugars) attached to phosphodiester bonds

-contains uracil (U)l instead of thymine 

Functions 

-cellular protein synthesis 

-messenger RNA (mRNA) carries code from DNA of the nucleus to sites of protein synthesis 

-transfer RNA (tRNA) carries amino acids to ribosomes 

-ribosomal RNA (rRNA) forms part of the protein synthesizing organelles known as ribosomes -carries genetic code in come viruses

-polymers known as polynucleotides 

-made up of many monomers known as nucleotides

-made up of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar and one or more phosphate groups

-the nucleotide without a phosphate group is known as nucleoside (nitrogenous base +sugar)

-Pyrimides; have a 6 membered ring (cytosine, thymine and uracil)

-Purines ; have a 6 membered ring infused to a 5 membered ring (adenine and guanine )

-nucleotide = nucleoside + phosphate group

-are linked together by a phosphodiester linkage (two phosphate groups ) 

-backbone of sugar phosphate units would be made 

-some proteins (enzymes) speed up reactions 

-can be used for other things like, defense, transport, structure and cellular communication 

-made up of a long chain of amino acids 

-proteins can be made up from up to 20 different types of amino acids 

Enzymatic proteins 

-specifically speeds up the rate of some reactions 

-e.x digestive enzymes speed up the reaction of the breakdown of food in our bodies 

-protects the body against diseases 

-antibodies help fight and destroy bacteria/ viruses 

-stores amino acids 

-e.x casein is a major source of amino acids for baby mammals 

-transport substances 

-e.x hemoglobin transports oxygen around the body

-responsible for coordination of an organism's activities 

-e.x insulin signals for other tissues to take up sugar 

-how cells respond to chemical stimuli 

e.x-receptors in the nervous system can detect signalling molecules released from other cells 

-movement 

-e.x responsible for the undulations of the cilia and flagella  

-e.x actin and myosin are responsible for the contractions of muscles 

 

-support

-e,x  keratin is the protein that forms hair , horns , feathers , etc

-proteins that act as catalysts to speed up chemical reactions 

-enzymes can be reused repeatedly 

-unbranched polymers built from amino acids 

-proteins are made up of one or more polypeptides 

-polymer of amino acids 

-range in length 

-unique sequence of amino acids , ending with a carboxyl end and an amino end 

Amino acids 

-organic molecules with amino and carboxyl groups 

-differ in properties because of the difference in R groups (side chains)

-Linked by peptide bonds (covalent)

-consists of one or more polypeptides, intricately twisted , folded and coiled into a unique shape 

-spice filling , ribbon model and wire frame model 

-sequence of amino acids determine the structure of the protein 

-structure determines how it works

-function is based on its ability to bind and react to certain molecules 

-unique sequence of amino acids 

-the simplest level of the protein structure

-is a chain of amino acids and is determined by DNA

-like the primary structure, but instead it contains coils and folds

-this is caused by the interaction of atoms in the backbone 

-e.x alpha helix (coiled)and beta pleated sheet(folded)

-(held in shape by hydrogen bonds 

-the hydrogen bonds are the ones that cause it’s coiled/ folded shape

-structure is due to the interactions between the R groups and not the interactions between atoms on the backbone

-those many interactions include van der waals, hydrophobic interactions, hydrogen bonds and ionic bonds 

-Disulfide bridges (covalent bonds) reinforce the tertiary structure 

-is formed when two or more polypeptides form a macromolecule

-hydrogen bonding and London dispersion forces hold the subunits of the quaternary structure together 

-hemoglobin is an example of a quaternary structure that is made up of 4 polypeptides 

-changes to the pH, temperature or other environmental factors can denature a protein 

-denatured proteins are inactive