One of earliest written bodies of law

Black basalt; over 7’ high

Property law, penalties (includes “an eye for an eye”—like Hebrew Bible); also, trial by river: if he sinks, guilty

Left: Hammurabi approaching Shamash (sun-God) (shoulders have sun rays); holds rope ring and measuring rod of kingship

Shows divinely ordained power

War booty; captured by Elamites

Over 300 laws; predates biblical text of law of Moses

Mud bricks-

Cylinder seal-A cylinder seal is a small round cylinder, typically about one inch (2 to 3 cm) in length, engraved with written characters or figurative scenes or both, used in ancient times to roll an impression onto a two-dimensional surface, generally wet clay.

Heraldic pose-

Registers-

Composite view-or twisted perspective, was used by ancient civilizations in paintings or drawings.

Hieratic scale/Hierarchical scale- most important to least

Ziggurat-a rectangular stepped tower, sometimes surmounted by a temple. Ziggurats are first attested in the late 3rd millennium bc and probably inspired the biblical story of the Tower of Babel 

Stele-is a stone or wooden slab. These may be inscribed, carved in relief, or painted.

Lamassu-A winged human-headed bull.

Orthostat-stone slabs set at the base of a wall) 

Column-

Capital-

 

Neolithic

Megalith

Dolmen Tomb

Menhir

Cromlech

Mortise and Tenon

Monumental mastaba for a king; steps to heaven? Wanted mastaba to seen over wall around necropolis

Imhotep: one of first named architects; deified because of wisdom and knowledge of astronomy, architecture, and medicine

Each pyramid had a funerary temple at base and a causeway leading from another temple; funerary complex

Largest took 25 years to build (Khufu—also oldest); covers 13 acres at base and height of 450 feet

Limestone or granite(different from ziggurats); Would be covered with smooth white limestone=casing

Who built? Discovery of a town for workers to the south of the plateau; likely that there was a permanent group of skilled craftsmen and builders who were supplemented by seasonal crews of approximately 2,000 conscripted peasants. 

 

Destroyed by later Islamic residents of Giza; no representations of humans in art

The Sphinx is almost certainly inspired by Near Eastern lamassus, serving the same protective function for the funerary temple of the deceased pharaoh.  

Diorite=very hard stone, will last forever; also comes from distant lands, so shows king’s control

Egyptian theme of endurance; self contained, frontal; qualities of powerful king (muscular, Horus wraps wings around head

How similar to Khafra? one piece, solid, frontal, rigid

Frontality gives presence and eternal nature—never changing; also ageless faces--permanence

How is the idea of unity suggested? Nearly same height (no hieratic scale); both highly polished, smooth, shows body structure under dress, both take a step with left foot

Hair echoes headdress; 

Diet: bread and barley drink (like beer but less alcoholic)

Lyre with bull’s head; gold leaf and lapis lazuli (like lyre on standard of Ur)

Shell inlaid with bitumen

Top: heraldic composition: man embracing two bulls (with human faces)  (HERO POSE)

Animals play music, carry food and drink

Scorpion man? Ward off evil? Some story or fable? Associated with funerary rites?

Great sense of curves and countercurves

Eyes probably inlaid; gouged out during invasion of Nineveh in 612

Belief in afterlife—objects such as weapons, jewelry, vessels as well as servants: soldiers, musicians, attendants buried with the dead (drugged or hit with a hammer on the head)

Probably functioned as a stand for an offering to a deity (cylinder seals show a bowl balancing on the horns and cylinder)

Goats and rosettes associated with gods (like golden calf? Shows why Israelites might have created)

Gold leaf, lapiz lazuli, copper

Dedicated to moon god, Nanna

Mud brick and baked brick; a lot of it survived because exterior was fired brick

Buttresses give impression of strength; upward lines give energy

Saddam Hussein did restoration in 1980’s

Parked fighter jets next to ziggurat, assuming that American and coalition forces wouldn’t bomb; proved incorrect

Four levels

Neolithic times

Early pottery! Susa had been occupied for a long time

Nomad’s gear=portable art buried with dead

Abstract animals

Circles of horns of ibex reflect roundness of beaker

Necks of birds  reflect horizontality of beaker

Early interest in pattern, surface decoration

Excavators looking for tomb of Daniel

-23 subject nations represented in local dress and bringing regional gifts

-Mostly profile view; shallow relief but looks 3-D

-Repetition of walkers=timelessness; perpetual reign, peace, prosperity, etc.

-Wear indigenous dress and bring regional gift to the throne as a tribute (message?)

-Shallow relief but round at the edge gives impression of greater depth

-Most in full profile

-Alexander the Great defeated the Persians c. 331 B.C.

Back to same poses from past 3000 years (from tomb painting)

Jackal man is Anubis (god of embalming); leads Hunefer in and weighs heart against feather (represents Ma’at, goddess of order and ethical behavior)

Thoth (ibis-head=scribe of gods) records outcome

Ammut (crocodile head, body of lion, back legs of hippo) waits to devour if unjust

Osiris seated above natron (salt used for preserving body) with Isis (goddess of life) and her sister Hephthys

4 sons of Horus stand on a white lotus blossom (symbol of rebirth); protected internal organs that were removed in embalming process

Horus (with eye=god of sky) holds ostrich feather, representing the favorable judgment of Ma’at

Painting: emphasis of line (drawing) over color

Not frontal! Also not pharoahs—but knew how to portray naturalistically

Thebes: valley of the kings—cut into cliffs

One entrance, guards (entrances were concealed after burial)—still looted—almost immediately

Hatshepsut was chief wife and half sister of Thutmose II; became pharaoh when husband died (regent for young son)

Mirrors setting in cliff; rises, strong horizontal ground-line, vertical lines of colonnades (like fissures in cliff)=order imposed on chaos (nature) just as king’s role was to impose order on chaos

Monumental temple dedicated to himself and gods

Massive rock facade: four huge seated figures of the king (almost 70 feet high)

Amun in niche, members of royal family between legs

Relief images of Ramesses hold statue of Ma’at, goddess of order to the god Amun (thus king’s role as keeper of order on earth)

Registers

Mastaba- a type of ancient Egyptian tomb in the form of a flat-roofed, rectangular structure with inward sloping sides, constructed out of mudbricks.

Necropolis-A large cemetery located outside an ancient city (literally a “city of the dead”).

Columns

Capitals

Step Pyramid- stepped pyramid is an architectural structure that uses flat platforms, or steps, receding from the ground up, to achieve a completed shape similar to a geometric pyramid.

Canon

Ka- a person identical to the person whom it was associated with, as a shadowy figure, as a person with two upraised arms on his head. The hieroglyph for the ka was the shoulders and arms with the arms bent upwards at the elbow, similar to the \"touchdown\" gesture in American football.

Cloisonne-decorative work in which enamel, glass, or gemstones are separated by strips of flattened wire placed edgeways on a metal backi

Cartouche-a carved tablet or drawing representing a scroll with rolled-up ends, used ornamentally or bearing an inscription.

Hypostyle hall-In architecture, a hypostyle (/ˈhaɪpəˌstaɪl, ˈhɪpə-/) hall has a roof which is supported by columns.

Sunken relief-Sunken relief is a technique of relief sculpture in which figures or images are carved in low relief, but set within a sunken area, so that the relief never rises beyond the original flat surface. 

Altar Stele-a usually raised structure or place on which sacrifices are offered or incense is burned in worship

Book of the Dead- intructions for the dead in their journey in to after life.

King Minos of Crete

 from Greek mythology

Cinerary urn-used to house the ashes of loved ones were shaped and molded to look like the huts they lived in during their lives on earth. Miniatures of personal items were also placed with the urn, such as razors, brooches, knives, and pottery. It is believed that these items were to help the deceased in the next life.

Filigree-
ornamental work of fine (typically gold or silver) wire formed into delicate tracery:

Orator pose-hand up and pointed out- leader who was eloquent

Probably influenced by temples in Greece around 600 B.C. but built with materials that didn’t survive (wood, mud brick); only stone foundations survive

Non-Greek: pediment empty; columns not fluted (made of wood); columns don’t go all the way around; frontal entry (steps only in the front)

An ancient Roman architect by the name of Vitruvius wrote about Etruscan temples in his book De architectura in the late first century B.C.E. In his treatise on ancient architecture, Vitruvius described the key elements of Etruscan temples and it was his description that inspired Renaissance architects to return to the roots of Tuscan design and allows archaeologists and art historians today to recreate the appearance of these buildings.

Strengthens claim to authority (visual propaganda) (see next slide)

Putto riding dolphin: Claimed he descended from Venus (also served as a strut to strengthen the marble)

Also refers to sea—naval victory over Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 31 BC

Divinely ordained power; elevates office of emperor

Breast plate: scene of Parthians bringing flag back (after they stole) to Rome; also puts on cosmic plane (shows god of sky and goddess of earth)

Public art: commemorative, propagandist; end of civil war, beginning of empire Caesar Augustus first emperor


Procession frieze shows people on the day of the altar’s dedication; resemblance to Parthenon frieze  (and raises importance)

But different: shows real people: Livia and small children; importance of family heritage

Frieze: people attending the event (real people going to a real event—different than Parthenon frieze)

Message: rebuild the population (have children)

One of largest buildings in the world; held over 50,000 spectators

-Seating by social rank

-Made of concrete and faced with travertine

-Place for gladiator fights and mock sea battles—popular entertainment; many Christians executed here; but it was the -Christian religion that finally put an end to the massacres. --Emperor Constantine put a stop to the gladiator schools on 1 October 326 AD

-Physically and visually lighter as it goes up: Tuscan, Ionic, Corinthian columns and then  Corinthian pilasters

-Could be covered (to shade on hot days); had tunnels, passageways, and an elevator below for lions

-Held 50,000 people; 80 arched doorways to accommodate

Colosseum=The Colosseum, Rome, 70-80 CE (8:34)

Donut shape: inside ring concrete; outside ring concrete faced with travertine

Advantages of concrete (cement+aggregate): didn’t take specialized workers; much less expensive; could make shapes never before used (Greeks made theaters on a hillside—let landscape shape building; Romans shaped the landscape with their buildings

Also commemorative; Titus was son of Vespasian; built by Titus’ brother Domition at his death and becoming a god

Celebrating what? Probably apotheosis (divinization) of Titus: inscription and small relief panel describe Titus as a god (see next slide)

Main relief panel under bay (inside of arch)

Situated at the highest point of the Sacra Via, the Arch of Titus (Arcus Titi) was erected by Domitian sometime after the death of his brother in AD 81, commemorating the capture of Jerusalem by Titus in AD 70.

"The Roman Senate and People (dedicate this) to the divine Titus Vespasianus Augustus, son of the divine Vespasian."

 

1.basilica—focus: rectangular building (main structure)

2. Libraries (behind basilica) (one for Greek literature, one for Roman)

3. Temple

4. excedra—round extentions where judge would sit

5. Column of Trajan (between libraries)—showed expansion of Trajan, exploits

Middle of basilica taller to allow windows 

400’x200’

Spiral staircase inside; could climb up and stand on viewing platform (statue used to be Trajan; now St. Peter)

Huge scale for freestanding column—engineering feat

Spiral frieze: continuous narrative, 2500 individual people

Commemorates victory of Trajan over Dacians (Romanian)

Story begins at bottom: Roman army crosses Danube to reach what is now Romania; river is personified

2nd band: Trajan speaks to soldiers, soldiers build fortifications

3rd band: building camp and bridge

4th: foot soldiers cross a stream, emperor addresses troops in front of Dacian fortress

(rarely shows combat: more about geographic, logistic, political aspects); why? Shows leadership, people lost family members in combat; also, emphasizes what is still in force (building, leadership)

Scenes merge together (continuous narrative)

In keeping with funerary ritual to keep harmful spirits away; Trajan’s ashes buried under base

Center of forum of Trajan: one of the 5 “good emperors”

Spiral staircase inside; could climb up and stand on viewing platform (statue used to be Trajan; now St. Peter)

Huge scale for freestanding column—engineering feat

Spiral frieze: continuous narrative, 2500 individual people

Commemorates victory of Trajan over Dacians (Romanian)

First Pantheon (temple to all the gods) built by Augustus’ right-hand man Agrippa; fire destroyed. Then Domition built one, which was struck by lightning

Used to sit above the street on podium; now below (over centuries, the street level rose)

Corinthain columns

Figure 7.25 

7 niches at cardinal points

Oculus=eye at top of enormous dome (27-foot hole)

Confidence in use of concrete and its potential

Material gets lighter and thinner on top: 

Coffers: to lighten the weight

Was painted 

Sunlight coming through eye at noon on April 21 illuminated main door of Pantheon; birthday festival of Rome (Trajan planned?)

Experience: in center, dome seems to spin (like watching starry sky); center of floor raised slightly; heightens sensation, slightly dizzying?

Hadrian held court here: appeared as controller of his revolving universe (guests would have felt awed and manipulated by the space)

Different colors of marble in columns represented far-away areas of Rome’s authority 

Spared from being melted down in medieval period because Christians thought it was Constantine the Great, champion of Christianity

Gesture of mercy; raised leg of horse once rested on a conquered barbarian; horse animated, but rider has perfect control

Bearded (like Hadrian); interested in philosophy 

Wrote “Meditations of Marcus Aurelius”—wrote during wars: What is left worth living for? Justice

Dreamy-eyed

Last of the 5 good emperors

Bedrooms come off atrium

People conducted business in homes; usually in front area

Artists played up distinguishing marks rather than leaving them out: heightens noble Republican ideals associated with age—wisdom, experience, hard work

Also deep respect for family, tradition, and ancestry

Veil=priest?

Veristic=true to life

Different ideals than Greeks: seniority=responsibility and experience

To run for office you had to be a certain age; an image marked by age showed proper qualifications

What’s not ideal (wrinkles, sags) record a life of work, engagement. What is ideal? Looks intelligent, wise, thoughtful, resolute.
bronze

After conquest of Greece (146 BC), architects began using Greek forms more (had earlier)

Greek? Columns-- Ionic (capitals and base), pediment

Etruscan? Stairs just in front (not all around); on a podium

Roman? one big interior room; pseudo peripteral (engaged columns)—purely decorative, not supportive

Columns not marble (considered extravagant); tufa or travertine (local stone); covered with white marble stucco

Fresco paintings; preserved

First style: made plaster look like marble paneling (expensive), bricks—faux finishes

Second style: illusionistic; made rooms open up (architectural features)

Third style: solid planes with panels of decorative painting

Fourth style: mix of all styles

Sarcophagi: stone coffins; familiar themes

L-R: Jonah with ship, sea monster, woman praying (orant), man with scroll=prophets/Christ as teacher, Christ the Good Shepherd, baptism of Christ (dove, water)

Small: book suggests fear of making idolatrous image

Blank faces: to be filled in with dead person and spouse? Strong marker, made in advance

Eastern and Western Roman Empires split c. 400 AD

During 5th century, western empire threatened at all borders by migrating tribes (barbarians); Rome vulnerable to attack, so Emperor Honorius moved capital north to Milan and then Ravenna

Galla Placidia named after Honorius’s sister

Shape of plan? Greek cross (arms equal length)

Simple exterior

Last Early Christian church or first Early Byzantine church (or both)

outside: plain

Inside: full of decoration, heavenly
walls marble

Natural setting like Roman painting, but otherworldy because gold, glittering; Christ in the world but also heavenly 

Nimbus=halo

Golden mosaic robe; signs of change in representation

Ichthus symbol: A symbol consisting of two intersecting arcs, the ends of the right side extending beyond the meeting point so as to resemble the profile of a fish

Orant position A posture or bodily attitude of prayer, usually standing, with the elbows close to the sides of the body and with the hands outstretched sideways, palms up.

Clerestory The upper part of the nave, choir, and transepts of a large church, containing a series of windows. It is clear of the roofs of the aisles and admits light to the central parts of the building.

Martyrium The edifice honoring the grave or memorial (memoria ) of a martyr or witness for Christ.

Tesserae  A small piece of stone, glass, ceramic, or other hard material cut in a cubical or some other regular shape.

Nimbus  A radiant circle or disk surrounding the head of a holy person, a representation of spiritual character through the symbolism of light.

Nave The central longitudinal space of a bascilican church.

Aisle The portion of a basilica flanking the nave and separated from it by a row of columns or piers.

Gallery  Any covered passage that is open at one side, such as a portico or a colonnade.

Narthex Long, narrow, enclosed porch, usually colonnaded or arcaded, crossing the entire width of a church at its entrance.

Apse  A semicircular or polygonal termination to the choir, chancel, or aisle of a secular or ecclesiastical building.

Icon An image, symbol, picture, or other representation usually as an object of religious devotion.

Iconoclast, Iconophile A person who attacks settled beliefs or institutions.

Psalter A volume containing the Book of Psalms, often with other devotional material bound in as well, such as a liturgical calendar and litany of the Saints.

Pantocrator An image of Jesus Christ as ruler of the universe.

Niches for dead bodies (often looted)

350 miles of catacombs under Rome

Never used for meetings; dark, stinky

Wealthy families would create rooms with niches and painted ceilings to show status

Center: Christ the Good Shepherd (lamb over shoulders); gentle, young man, no beard; after pagan symbol of charity (ancient sculptures of men carrying sacrificial animals on their shoulders)

“orant” positions: prayer

3 scenes of Jonah: boat, being spit out, and reclining with withering plant (pose of Endymion in Roman art: perpetual sleep, never aged); Jonah a type of Christ: 3 days in belly of whale, 3 days in tomb; unites OT and NT

Reflects Roman murals in style; Christ figure, pose of Endymion, division into linear sections (lunettes)

Unites people from different backgrounds: Roman, Jewish, and Christian

Sketchy? Only used for burials (not a church); also dark; lit by oil lamps (niches in walls)

Most important building of Early Byzantine period

Like Mausoleum of Santa Constanza in Rome in plan (see next 2 slides) but now it is a church, not a mausoleum attached to a church; larger and richer in spatial effect

Octagonal plan, dome over center but nave (circular now) opens into semicircular niches; makes rhythmic space

Narthex at angle; Why? (don’t know); disorienting

-Thickness of walls and vaults hidden rather than emphasized; dematerialized

-“illusion of unreality”

Symbol of Byzantium

Also under Justinian’s reign: this one in Constantinople (where Justinian ruled)

Hagia Sophia=holy wisdom

Original church there commissioned by Constantine; destroyed by rioters who tried to overthrow Justinian; he immediately rebuilt; wanted to make greatest church in Christian world; took 5 years to build (532-537)

Dome—184’tall 

(4 minarets were added when it was made a mosque after Turkish conquest in 1453))

Interior used to be covered with gold mosaics (gold leaf sandwiched between glass tesserae), so light would reflect off the gold and shimmer; also marble revetments and columns

Dematerialized; worshipers would have felt effect

No figures—leading up to iconoclasm

-Veneration or worship? If you worship image what does it become? (Idol worship)

-Tension between two beliefs

-Supporters? images help you to have faith by visualization; help you to feel something; claim that Christ had appeared with the Virgin to St. Luke and permitted him to paint their portrait together; miraculous images had appeared (models for icons)

Iconoclasts (image destroyers): no graven images 

-Most icons destroyed during period of iconoclasm (edict by -Byzantine emperor Leo III in 726; lasted about 100 years); many of the surviving examples come from Monastery of St. Catherine at Mount Sinai in Egypt (where God spoke to Moses in burning bush (desert, isolated; too far away from Constantinople)

-Monasteries began in Egypt in 2nd and 3rd centuries; withdrawal from worldly temptations to devote oneself to prayer and contemplation

-Christ: full frontal, large eyes; similar to Christ Pantocrator but more modeling

Encaustic (pigment in hot wax); like Roman portraits

Byzantine qualities? Long, thin, flattened ( a little knee)

Surface decoration; large heads; frontal; haloes

Hand of God at top

Classical? Modeling, a little knee sticking out, angels above

Psalter contains book of Psalms from OT (sacred songs or hymns)

Compares iconocasts to crucifiers of Jesus; vinegar-soaked sponge (right) like sponge used to whitewash icons

Christ Pantocrator=ruler and judge of universe; nimbus with cross; over-sized, awesome image (higher up, higher degree of holiness)

IC XC abbreviation for Jesus Christ

Holds book—word of God (he is the Word)

Thumb touching finger=blessing gesture

Royal: Purple robe, gold, huge; intimidating?

National Gallery, Washington DC

Tempera on wood with gold leaf but looks like mosaic tradition

Shows combination of east and west: graceful, elongated features Byzantine; also modeling in face; gold background; even more abstract than earlier Byzantine (sunbursts on drapery)

Play of naturalistic and abstract

Effect is neither flat or spatial (sort of architectural space—looks like colosseum)

Classical: Throne looks like colosseum

eastern: Christ’s gesture of blessing; red background of angels in medallions

Uneasy space

Son of Akbar, 3rd Emperor of the Mughal Dynasty (Muslim)

-Akbar had no heir and consulted with a Sufi named Shaikh Salim (Islamic mystic) who promised a son would be born

-Son named Salim; changed his name to Jahangir (“Seizer of the World”)

-Jahangir has flames of gold radiating from his head against a gold disc and crescent moon (day and night; symbolizes divine truth and emperorship)

-Sits on circular form that mimics disc; the earth? Largest figure (hieratic scale)

-Other figures: Shaikh, who accepts a gift with his robe (avoiding physical contact with royal person—taboo); see contrast in hands

-Ottoman Sultan: hands pressed together in respect

-King James I of England (copied; typical portrait would show hand on sword, but might appear threatening)

-Bichitr, artist; yellow robe tied on left shows he is Hindu (not Muslim); holds picture in which he appears with 2 horses and an elephant; gifts from emperor?

-Bichitr has dutifully indulged his patron’s desire to be seen as powerful ruler (in a position of superiority to other kings), but with a spiritual bent.

-Hourglass shows Baroque interest in the theme of time

-Persian influence: border designs, calligraphy, elaborate carpet

-Western influence: shading, angels, cupids

Miniatures: book illustrations, opaque watercolors

Basawan=designer, Chatar Muni, colorist

Akbar on elephant, pitted against another ferocious elephant; second one fled in defeat; Hawai chased it to a pontoon bridge

Weight of the elephants capsized the boats, but Akbar managed to bring Hawai under control and dismount safely

Allegory of his ability to govern and take charge of an unruly state

How does the artist emphasize chaos and danger?

High horizon line, diagonals of bridge and shore, vivid gesture, elephant bursts through border of the scene

Akbar encouraged political tolerance; unified diverse areas of India

Artistic blend of Persian (his father was in exile in the Persian court), Indian, and Western traditions

Hindu shading

Islamic patterning (where?) waves, calligraphy

Elements of western perspective (where?) angles of castle, convincing ground

Palace: incorporated metaphors for paradise on earth; only part remains

Fountain on the backs of 12 lions; water comes from mountains

Delicate carving; creates texture and lightness

Massive iwan (vaulted entrance), 2 cylindrical minarets

Elaborate mosaics of colored tiles in geometric and vegetal patterns; rich variety and complexity

Southern Spain (Andalusia)

Hypostyle hall (means filled with columns) now forest of columns (500 columns)

Horseshoe arches, one on top of another; red and white voussoirs (horseshoe columns came from Visigoths who had taken over the area after the fall of Rome

Large like Hagia Sophia or Old St.Peter’s but no centralized space

(creates illusion of limitless space)

Repetition in columns, arches, and voussoirs reflect the timelessness of prayer

Why animal style? Intertwining birds, serpents 

Belt buckle; Solid gold; symmetrical

Niello=black background made of metal alloy to make gold stand out

Intricate, tight design

Interlacing animal style, Millefiori
Hoo=British Museum, film of excavation (1 minute)

Gold, enamel, and garnet purse cover; leather rotted away

Inlaid glass, enamel

Cloisonne (“fenced in”: bronze outlines)

Raptor eating duck

Bilateral symmetry

“hero pose”—man between 2 animals—does it look familiar?

Each book a sacred object; beauty needed to reflect importance of contents

Called illuminated manuscript: painter called miniaturist

Complex! symmetry, exact; worked on a grid

“sacred riddle”; biting, clawing animals subdued by cross, converted to Christianity like the Celtic tribes themselves

Three factors contribute: isolation, sophistication of scriptoria, desire to spread Christianity

Moses behind curtain with closed book (vs. new revelation)
The Lindisfarne Gospels was made at Lindisfarne Priory at a time of 
Classical influence on Hiberno-Saxon art can be seen in the 
The intricate patterns and ornamental detail of this page from the Lindisfarne Gospels served to 

Several Christian churches built under Constantine’s reign: shows legitimacy of Christian faith (no longer only in private homes)

Modeled after Roman basilica (made for public gatherings); good design for lots of people to gather (3000-4000 people); also associations with imperial Rome gave legitimacy

Roman ideas: Long nave flanked by aisles; 

Made entrance at west end rather than the side; new focus of altar at east end (reminds us of Roman god Apollo) (not sacrifices for the gods but the holy Eucharist (Sacrament)

Largest Constantinian church; Why Old St. Peter’s? torn down to make present St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome; drawings and literary sources exist

Stood directly over tomb of St. Peter; martyrium=building that holds remains or relics of holy person

Meaning: “Crown of Buildings”

Symmetrical; contributes to calm, imposing impression

4 waterways, signifying paradise and its 4 rivers

Royal tomb in Agra, India

Commissioned by Shah Jahan in memory of his deceased wife Mumtaz Mahal

White marble inlaid with colored stones in the form of flowers, vines, and calligraphy

Formal garden with 4 pools

Inscriptions suggest gardens of Paradise; domed buildling evokes throne of god; earthly version of divine paradise

Qibla Wall- the direction of the Kaaba shrine in Mecca toward which all Muslims turn in ritual prayer.

Kufic Script-is a style of Arabic script that gained prominence early on as a preferred script for Quran transcription and architectural decoration

Minaret-a tall slender tower, typically part of a mosque, with a balcony from which a muezzin calls Muslims to prayer.

Horseshoe arches-Horseshoe arches can take rounded, pointed or lobed form.

Voussoirs-a wedge-shaped element, typically a stone, which is used in building an arch or vault.

Iwan-An iwan is a rectangular hall or space, usually vaulted, walled on three sides, with one end entirely open

Cardona in Pyrenees of northwest Spain (see map above)

Needs: more space for visitors

  needed to be fireproof: basilica planned churches had wooden trussed roofs; many destroyed by fire by marauders in earlier centuries

What’s different? stone barrel vaults instead of wooden truss roof; advantages?

  larger, wider, taller

  less risk of fire

  better acoustics

Romanesque means Roman-like (mostly in architecture)

arches and barrel vault: Roman-like (Romanesque); but concrete technology lost (cut stone)

Distinct projections on piers (compound piers); support different parts; vertical emphasis, gives unity and harmony; major innovation of Romanesque

Units of space called bays

Overall effect: massive, strong, protective; limited light

Journey through church like longer journey: station to station

Enter at west end into narthex (foyer)

Aisles could be walked through even during religious ceremony; make your way towards the east

New: longer nave to hold more people, ambulatory around apse so you could walk all the way around and visit apsidioles containing relics

Mathematical modular units: bays of nave and transept half of crossing; bays of aisles half size of nave bays and ¼ size of crossing; geometric organization

Cross 

All parts integrated into the whole

Compound piers again with 4  colonnettes that articulate structure

Emulates nobility and grandeur of Roman architecture

Progressed to east end

Apsidioles (apse-like chapels around apse) held relics

On pilgrimage road to Santiago de Campostela

Typical Romanesque portal  (vocabulary next slide)

Revelation 4:2-7; surrounded by four beasts of the apocalypse, two angels, 24 elders;

Wavy line under feet= “the sea of glass like crystal”

Activity, energy, abstraction; fits scallop in jambs (sides of doorway) and trumeau (center support)—Islamic device

4 evangelists: energetic, twisting forms; jerky movement

Drapery takes on life of its own; energy

Message? Be good or else (Christ is judge)

Christ large, dominates; under feet it says Giselbertus hoc fecit (made this)

4 angels in corners sound trumpets of the Apocalypse (where)?

Bottom: dead rise from graves

Far left: saved cling to angels to take to heaven; far right: damned are cast into the mouth of Hell, seized by grinning devils

Twisted, agitated, energized

One would enter feeling chastened

Judicial proceedings took place here; actual judgment by ordeal; accused had to withstand grueling physical tests to prove innocence

Above on archivolt: zodiac signs/labors of the months: puts last judgment on earthly time

“Romanesque imagination heated by a fearful faith”; makes one aware of the greatness of god and the littleness of man

Long, twisting body; why leg crossed?

Crossed Lions on front of trumeau: animate like in interlacing animal style; also surface decoration

Guard entrance; also to terrify and to encourage to refrain from sin

Knife in one hand to sharpen quill

Gold background and linear quality=Byzantine

Tight design, decorative patterns=Celtic-Germanic 

The gaping jaws of hell

“Here is hell and the angels who lock the doors.”

Churches served to protect from dark forces but also instilled fears in members (last judgment scenes, etc.)

Monsters like at St. Pierre, Moissac

(looks Early Christian; close to Rome, more conservative); Italian architects never adopted the vertical emphasis of northern architecture; what makes it Romanesque?

  wide transept, dome over crossing, marble incrustation, multiple arcade galleries of the facade

2nd built: baptistery began 1153; everything above first level reworked during Gothic period

3rd built: campanile (bell tower) began 1174; poor foundation, began to  lean even before it was completed; most famous Italian Romanesque monument

8 sides traditional for baptistery: rebirth; world began on 8th day following creation, Christ resurrected on 8th day of the Passion

Green and white marble typical of Romanesque in Italy; geometric

Triple arches classical in proportion, detail (center of Italian Renaissance; haven’t really lost ties to classicism)

Breakthrough in building technology (on large scale—already knew how to do it); but daring on this scale)

One of earliest fully vaulted Romanesque churches in Europe

230 feet long; continuous narrative; records events leading up to 1066, when William the Conqueror of Normandy (France) conquered England (claimed the throne at death of King Edward the Confessor)

Harold (Anglo-Saxon earl) and William (duke in Normandy) both thought they had right to the throne

Historical event—Roman idea (like column of Trajan)

Figures tall, thin, weightless

Energy, movement (somersaulting horses), detail, linear clarity

Who embroidered? Credited to English needlewomen, famous during Middle Ages for their skills

Combines narrative and ornament (top and bottom margins; like manuscripts)

7 sections formed by 2 x’s

Norman church surrounded by natural moat of the Wear River near Scotland border of England

One of the largest medieval churches in Europe; 3-story nave

Compound piers rise up to ribbed groin structure; decorated with chevrons, diamonds, and spirals; cushion shaped capitals (all originally painted)                                                                                                                                

Ribbed groin vaulting new; earliest use over 3-story nave

Ribs provided stable skeleton for the groin vault; could make stonework in between lighter

Outer wall: buttresses to support weight (see next slide)

Westwork: imperial church

Vertical thrust starting with 4 buttresses, then towers; 3 vertical sections (groups of threes throughout; find them)

No portal decoration like most Romanesque churches

Founded by William the Conqueror after invasion of England in 1066; took over 100 years to complete

Normandy: NW France; Normans=Norsemen=Vikings

Ribbed groin vaults; from Durham Cathedral; now six sections (sexpartite groin vault)with simple ribs; has a lighter, airier feel 

Compound piers soar all the way up and flow into Ribbed groin vaults; sexpartite (6 parts); ribs compose a structural skeleton that supports paneling between them

Airy lightness; able to put in clerestory level above gallery

First letters of name of Christ

Literacy rare and class-based; books symbols of authority; mystifying for outsider

Not as geometrical as lindsifarne gospels; humans for first time

Face at top of chi? 3 angels with wings?

Head at end of ro (p) (Christ?)

Cats and mice, butterflies, otters catching fish; original I Spy

Powerful connection with viewer (like icons)

800 became Holy Roman Emperor (named by Pope Leo III in Old St. Peter’s basilica in Rome on Christmas day: successor to Constantine, first Christian emperor)

Goal: wanted to bring back glory of ancient Rome but in a Christian context

  wanted to clean up text of Bible; recognized that mistakes had crept in with copying; gathered scholars to make a master copy

  wanted to standardize letters, punctuation to make things more clear to read and correct

  wanted to educate varied societies (clergy) under his reign to worship properly; set up schools in monasteries; 1000’s of manuscripts produced

Center in Aachen (now Germany; close to France, Belgium, Netherlands)

Period of Charlemagne and his successors=Carolingian (Carolus Magnus=Charles the Great)

Horse is his throne; orb=domination of the world

Moustache—Barbarian

Wears fibula on cloak

Roman models? 

Matthew seized with frenzy of divine inspiration

Acanthus leaves like flames; abbreviated

Unique! Book says it recalls endless interlaced movement of animal style; (

Gold cross and Christ

Colored gems—raised on clawed feet or turrets; light can penetrate from beneath to bring out full brilliance (valuable!) raised stones also protect relief figures in repousse (tooled from underneath) when book is opened

Reliefs have same energy (Reims style); expressive; but Christ has no expression, seems to stand

Two transepts with central towers; stair turrets at each end

Division into threes (sections of transepts, supports of nave arcade

-Symbols of status as HRE: crown, eagle sceptor, orb with cross; lions on throne; political and spiritual leader (two domains)

-4 women=4 provinces; same pose as magi on gown of Theodora (also shows total authority)

-Mixes Byzantine influence

-died in early 20’s: end of Ottonian empire

gold background Byzantine

Classical background (classicism via Byzantine influence)

Story told through glances and gestures; also hieratic scale (jesus’ active arm longer than passive arm)

Even toes active

-Doors=Smarthistory: Bronze Doors, St. Michael’s, Hildesheim, commissioned by Bishop Bernward, 1015 (4:23)
Bishop Bernward's bronze doors was cast using the lost wax process.

Head on one of the posts

Interlacing carved

Did Vikings wear horned helmets? No! Artistic device later

  Growth in population and ability to travel because of  trade, crusades, pilgrimages to visit holy relics

Pilgrimages: arduous travel part of allure

  1st choice: Jerusalem (controlled by Muslims); Crusades

  2nd choice: Rome; Saints Peter and Paul buried there

  3rd choice: Santiago de Compostela (Santiago=St. James)

  legend: taught in area of Spain; received vision; virgin Mary told him to go back to Jerusalem; martyred in Jerusalem by Herod Agrippa (grandson of Herod the Great); body put on boat, washed up at Compostela

Pilgrimage route=better roads, spreading of ideas, buildings along the way, economic growth

Continued influence of Celtic-Germanic and Byzantine styles in painting and sculpture; flat, hardly relief; just carved out

Christ on center with 2 semicircles=mandorla; heaven and earth (Christ presides over both realms); like body halo

6 apostles in arched niches; heads fit in arches; individual features but very stylized; balance between structure and decoration just like in buildings

Hiberno-Saxon interlacing; dependence on line for details in face, drapery; resembles earlier decorative arts in ivory and metalwork

Decorative details like metalwork: beading (see below); carvers found inspiration in what sculptural work there was

Vaguely classical columns

St. Clare female counterpart of St. Francis of Assisi; made for Franciscan convent (called Poor Clares; founded by the noblewoman Clare, who was later canonized)

Byzantine influence! Frontal, elongated, gold, large halo, large eyes, long Byzantine,flatness

Vignettes at side (apron scenes): stories of her service

2 trends in Italian painting: ties to roman past (classical) and ties to Byzantine empire: 4th crusade: invaded Constantinople instead of Jerusalem; brought back Byzantine art to Italy

-Pulpit=stand for preaching; hexagonal, marble

-Inside baptistery in Pisa; 15 feet tall

-Blends medieval ideas with modern

-Classical: columns, Corinthian capitals

-Medieval: columns on backs of animals; trefoil arches

-Modern: carvings—classical look
-preachers would preach there
- figure on column influenced by classical art and it's content
giovani-great expressions

Gothic:pointed arches

Leading and largest Franciscan church (on the east side of town); Basilica plan; burial place of Michelangelo and Galileo (and other famous Italians)

3rd Pisano—not related (also from Pisa)

Life of John the Baptist (patron saint of Florence)

Part medieval (Gothic quatrefoil frames) part classical

Byzantine: gold, long nose, frontal, solemn expression

Loved Byzantine color, but 3-D throne—shows space

Which trend?

-Body shows beneath clothing, more physical solidity (except flat haloes)

-Loved gold and pattern of Byzantine, but leans to classical tradition of figure
-tempera (egg-based paint)
Compare:
Loved gold and pattern of Byzantine, but leans to classical tradition of figure

-illusion of space

Body shows beneath clothing, more physical solidity (except flat haloes), modeled in light; gradation of lights and darks; space more defined, solid

light and shadow. use of dimension
Angels kneeling suggest space further; also overlapping saints

Illusionistic textures shows familiarity with ancient roman painting

contrast
smaller
produced last 
real modeling from light to dark
-more modeling in face
-one fixed perspective

One-room hall covered with barrel vault; built to be Scrovegni’s burial chapel

Scrovegni: banker; worry about connection to usury (charging interest); built chapel as a good work to atone for usury (Enrico Scrovegni in Last Judgment scene handing church to 3 Mary’s—on right side)

Floor to ceiling fresco with three registers (even illusionistic marble panels): Cycle of Mary’s life (top), Christ’s life (middle), Christ’s passion (death and resurrection (bottom)

Altar wall: Anunciation

Back wall: Last judgment (as you leave); take these things seriously; you will suffer according to your sins

To celebrate, commissioned Duccio to make a huge altarpiece

“Greek Manner” (Byzantine)—tempera on panel; richer colors than fresco

Combines with some space (knee, throne)

Compare with Cimabue (next): Duccio relaxes rigid, angular draperies; softer, more 3-D; modeling of light

Gentle gestures; had seen French Gothic mss painting

Lilies—emblem of purity of virgin

Words: “Hail Mary, full of grace, the Lord is with you”

(the word became flesh; words going into Mary’s ear become son of God

Like Giotto: reduces story to simplest terms

Like Duccio: lyrical elegance; spiritual realm emphasized over physical realm

Walls of palazzo of Siena, where laws were made; shows happy people, peace (propaganda)

How to govern, how to be a good citizen—civic-minded

Joseph gazes with wonder

Left top corner: Annunciation

Crowded, looks like Roman sarcophagus

Mary looks like a Roman matron; dignified

Also part of a pulpit; Same story (nativity, angels and shepherds, symbolic bathing of Christ); 

Differences? Focuses on landscape, animals; 

  higher relief (more deeply carved), thus more darks and lights, rounder; less crowded; also more action

  Mary: young mother rather than dignified matron

Modeling of figures new! Shows bulk

Earthly setting; not gold, shows ground

ncel wall

God the Father in a frame at top, overseeing events below: part of his plan

Annunciation scene

Betrayal of Judas and Visitation

Interior of chapel with believable space

Next to each scene are OT scenes or prophets that prefigure the NT events

Faux marble like Roman stone work

Portrait of Siena; everyone busy, productive, harmonious (dancing in front)

First true landscape since medieval times; orderly hillside, fruitful nature, peasants work in harmony, safety all because of justice and good governing

First 3 decades of 14th century were stable; in 1340’s catastrophes: warfare, bankruptcy, crop failures, famine, and then bubonic plague in 1348

Wiped out more than half of populations of Florence and Siena

6 prophets: Moses, David, Jeremiah, Zachariah, Daniel, and Isaiah; each prophesied of the death of Christ (scrolls represent); crucifix scene above showed fulfillment of OT prophecy (destroyed during French revolution—anti aristocracy);

Gothic: sculpture in niche (like cathedrals), Biblical theme, symbolism;  New naturalism: expressive, individualized faces; specific details-- bronze spectacles (Jeremiah); interactive; gestures, emotional urgency

3 brothers (Pol, Herman, and Jean de Limbourg); died in 1416 (probably of the plague; same year as Duke) and left unfinished; uncle was Jean Malouel, painter of Claus Sluter’s Moses Well and court painter to the Duke of Burgundy

For Duke of Berry, brother of Duke of Burgundy and King Charles V of France

International Style: elegant, sumptuous materials (gold, blue), expensive dress; details of patterns, textures; dogs on table, salt cellar

King Richard II (England) and patron saints kneeling before the Virgin Mary, Jesus, and Angels (wearing badges with emblems of King Richard)

Gothic? gold background, haloes, flat space, floating feet

International Gothic: sumptuous materials, elegance, patterns, repetition (wings, color, robes, faces), details in flowers

Contrast in colors=heavenliness?

Smarthistory video

Difference in setting? House interior; effect? brings supernatural event to everyday life (not painted for a church but for fellow citizen--25”x25” ); brings sacred  to terms we can understand; bond between patron and Biblical figures

What do you think of the perspective?  (overly foreshortened, different points of view)

Attention to detail; equality of attention to every detail; every object can have symbolic significance (reason for intense study of everyday objects): candle/Christ, lilies/purity; vessel/Mary as pure vesse (holds pure water for cooking; Mary holds the pure “Living Water”l; mousetrap;cross (St. Augustine); disguised symbolism

Names of Donors: Peter Ingelbrecht (angel bringer) and Scrynmaker (shrine or cabinet maker)

Shows city scenes of Liege

open! Continuous space outlined by slender arches, ribs, and columns

Pointed arch could be stretched to reach any desired height regardless of the width of its base; more flexible

Light in two ways; looked light in weight and let in light of the sun

Allowed for more stained glass

Gothic period started with one man at one church

St. Denis in Paris: St. Denis was medieval bishop who was a martyr by beheading; his remains in crypt in basement

Important Carolingian church; where Charlemagne and his father were consecrated as kings

Abbot Suger wanted to make it spiritual center of France and to form alliance between the French monarchy and the Church; remodeled church to make bigger and grander

New geometric order: 7 wedge-shaped units fan out from apse center; chapels not separate but continuous space 

Ambulatory: new—one big open space; dedicated June 11, 1144; concern with light; raise our minds from slime of earth to heavenly Jerusalem

Light in two ways; looked light in weight and let in light of the sun (allowed for more stained glass)

Supporting buttresses between chapels (look like arrows) support outward pressure of vaults; interior appears light and airy

West façade always last to be built; Romanesque building with Gothic western façade

Notre Dame=our lady (of Chartres); dedicated to Mary (height of cult of Mary); relic: cloak worn by Mary—not destroyed by fire (miracle) in 1194

Most of church burned down except western façade; rebuilt as high Gothic

School- important center of learning; focused on liberal arts
solid limestone
plate tracery- circle thingy
the decoration above the door
rainbow=archivoilts
inner rainbow= tympanum

Façade still heavy but lightened by lace-like stonework everywhere and window perforations

3-part nave elevation: nave arcade, gallery, clerestory
Point out: westwork, crossing tower, transept, flying buttresses

(like statue in Reims Cathedral)

Abraham and troops: crusader armor (holy by association); Louis organized two crusades and died in one in Tunisia

Gold background; painted architecture modeled after Sainte-Chapelle; looks like niches

Heavy dark outlines like stained glass (lead strips)

“court style”;“elegant style”: sway, graceful, smiling; exemplifies refined taste of the court art in Paris

Cloister (usually with monastery)

Lower and broader, but longer (long, low, sprawling look)

Flying buttresses not really needed; just for show

More spread out—park like

Façade is wider than church; like a screen

From the past, but individualized as if portrayed from life

gestures, gazes give human quality

Painted; outdoor sculptures were painted, too, but paint rarely survives

Painted wood

Pieta=sorrow (pity as well as piety) : gut-wrenching; German expressionism

Emphasizes personal relationship with God; wants us to share horror of Christ’s suffering and identify with grief of Mary

Encourages Compassion (“to suffer with”)

Roots in past (compare with Ottonian Geru crucifix; weightier, more physical than Carolingian)

Left: Virgin with Dead Christ (Rottgen Pieta) Goth 

Right:Michelangelo. Pietà. ca. 1498 

Similarities: Both of the sculptures were done in a triangle form. Both Mary’s are looking at the dead Christ. Both Mary’s are seated. Both sculptures are The Virgin and the dead Christ. They are both showing the body of Jesus on the lap of his mother Mary after the Crucifixion.

Differences: The Christ in the Rottgen Pieta is looking toward us while the Christ in the Florentine Pietà is looking at his Mother Mary. There are some decorations on the base of the Goth one and not on the one from the renaissance. The one from the Renaissance is more full, more real life looking. The Florentine Pietà is made of Marble and is 174 cm × 195 cm (68.5 in × 76.8 in) while the Rottgen Pieta is made of wood and is 34.5in (87.5cm) high. 

Conclusions: Both the Goth and the renaissance were trying to show the best way to depict Christ along with the Virgin. They are both pretty good works of art. They both caught the Mother Virgin’s countenance as very sad and mourning for her Son.

Feeling of more vertical continuity

Shafts attached to the piers stress continuity of vertical lines; guide our eyes upward to the vaults

Best example of stained glass windows; still has most of its 180+ original windows

Transforms light (Byzantine mosaics reflected light)

Ethereal light dissolves physical solidity of church; merges temporal world with divine world; creates mystical experience for worshiper

colored glass held together by lead caning; also painting on glass (faces)

1939: locals took stained glass windows out of cathedral and put in a salt mine to preserve during WWII

Rose window; virgin underneath in center

Gallery higher in proportion

Width narrower in proportion to height

Apse different: not round, no ambulatory (no relics or pilgrims)

Horizontal divisions dominate

Ribs rise all the way from triforium level; create steep curve, clerestory tucked in among vaults (like Durham Cathedral—now by choice)

Painted Altarpieces: work of art that decorates the space above and behind the altar in a Christian church. Painting, relief, and sculpture in the round have all been used in altarpieces, either alone or in combination. These artworks usually depict holy personages, saints, and biblical subjects.

Tempera: The technique of painting with pigments bound in a water-soluble emulsion, such as water and egg yolk, or an oil-in-water emulsion such as oil and a whole egg.

Fresco: a type of wall painting. The term comes from the Italian word for fresh because plaster is applied to the walls while still wet. There are two methods of carrying out fresco painting: buon fresco and fresco a secco. For both methods layers of fine plaster are spread over the wall surface.

Pulpit: A raised platform in a church, from which the sermon is delivered or the service is conducted.

Tau cross of St. Francis: It is called a “tau cross” because it resembles the shape of the Greek letter tau in an upper-case form, which looks similar to the Latin letter T. The tau cross is the emblem used by the Franciscan Order, founded by Saint Francis of Assisi

Republics: A government in which citizens elected representatives to rule on their behalf.
Duchies: A medieval country, territory, fief, or domain ruled by a duke or duchess, a ruler hierarchically second to the king or queen in Western European tradition.

Annunciation: It is a hallowed scene depicting the angel Gabriel announcing to the Virgin Mary that she would soon conceive a child born to be the son of God

Dyptch: A painting or relief carving made of two parts, which are usually joined by hinges

Triptych: A picture (such as an altarpiece) or carving in three panels side by side

Polyptych:  A painting or other two-dimensional artwork made up of more than three panels

Donors: The person who commissions and pays for the creation of a work of art. In religious art, donors are sometimes depicted within the work
Patrons:  The support that kings, popes, and the wealthy have provided to artists such as musicians, painters, and sculptors.

Grisaille: Painting technique by which an image is executed entirely in shades of gray and usually severely modeled to create the illusion of sculpture, especially relief

Intaglio: Any printmaking technique in which the image is produced by incising into the printing plate