• Adopted in 1997 in Kyoto, Japan.

• Entered into force in 2005 after ratification by enough countries.

• Main focus was on six greenhouse gases: carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)

• 'Annex I' countries (developed nations) committed to legally binding emission reduction targets.

• There were differentiated targets for each country, based on their historical emissions.

• Reduction targets were typically set for the first commitment period (2008-2012) and subsequent periods.

Challenges:

• Lack of participation by major emitters like the United States (though it did initially sign but later withdrew).

• Insufficient ambition in emission reduction targets.

• Complexities in implementation and verification.

The Cancun Agreements provide guidelines for developing countries to identify and implement REDD+ actions that could reduce greenhouse gas emissions from deforestation and land use change, and encourage developed countries to assist in this process.

Climate Change (IPCC) "to assess the state of existing knowledge about climate change: its science, the

environmental, economic and social impacts and possible response strategies" [1] .

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was established by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) in 1988 to provide a comprehensive assessment of the current state and impacts of climate change. The purpose of the IPCC is to inform policymakers and the general public about the current state of knowledge and potential responses to climate change.

The IPCC Assessment Reports

The IPCC Assessment Reports are comprehensive assessments of the current state of knowledge on various aspects of climate change. They are produced by the IPCC and serve as an authoritative source of information for policymakers, scientists, and the general public.

The first IPCC Assessment Report, published in 1990, provided a comprehensive overview of the current state of climate science. It highlighted the observed warming of the atmosphere and oceans, the role of greenhouse gas emissions in driving climate change, and the potential impacts of human activities on the climate system.

The IPCC Assessment Report 2, published in 1995, built on the findings of the first report and incorporated new scientific findings and observations. It further expanded on the understanding of climate change impacts, such as sea-level rise, changes in precipitation patterns, and extreme weather events.

The IPCC Assessment Report 3, published in 2001, focused on the impacts of climate change on ecosystems, biodiversity, and human societies. It highlighted the potential consequences of climate change for food security, water resources, human health, and livelihoods.

The IPCC Assessment Report 4, published in 2007, was a major update of the previous assessments. It incorporated the latest scientific findings and observations, including the impact of climate change on glaciers and ice sheets, the vulnerability of different regions to climate change, and options for adaptation and mitigation.

The IPCC Assessment Reports are essential documents that have shaped our understanding of climate change and have provided the foundation for international action on climate change. They serve as a comprehensive source of information on climate change impacts, vulnerabilities, and options for mitigation and adaptation.

The IPCC Special Reports

In addition to the IPCC Assessment Reports, the IPCC also publishes Special Reports that focus on specific aspects of climate change. These reports aim to address emerging issues or areas of particular urgency.

One of the early IPCC Special Reports, published in 2000, was the Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES). The SRES explored different pathways of future greenhouse gas emissions and the resulting climate changes. It provided a comprehensive set of emissions scenarios that could be used for climate modeling and policy analysis.

In 2018, the IPCC published the Special Report on Carbon Budgets. This report assessed the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions that can still be emitted while limiting global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius, as stipulated in the 2015 Paris Agreement. It highlighted the urgent need for deep and sustained emissions reductions in order to limit the level of global warming and avert the worst impacts of climate change.

The IPCC Special Reports are valuable additions to the body of knowledge on climate change. By focusing on specific topics, they enhance our understanding of the scientific basis, impacts, and options for addressing climate change.

In conclusion, the IPCC is a UN body that was established to provide a comprehensive assessment of the state of knowledge on climate change and its potential impacts. The IPCC Assessment Reports and Special Reports serve as authoritative sources of information on climate change, informing policymakers, scientists, and the general public. Their findings have played a key role in shaping our understanding of climate change, informing policymaking, and guiding international efforts to address the climate crisis.

Firms that are sustainable can sell their carbon credit on the market to other firms --> provide an economic incentive to reduce carbon emission.

However, carbon credit are only the exchange of carbon dioxide, and does not actually limit or address the over-emission of carbon dioxide.

The Paris Agreement was adopted in 2015 at COP21, and its aim is to limit global warming to below 2 degrees Celsius, including efforts to limit it to 1.5 degrees Celsius.

Key components include:

• Each country sets its own targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and adapting to climate change.

• A framework ensures transparency and accountability through the use of regular reporting on emissions and progress towards NDCs (Nationally Determined Contributions).

• Developed countries have also committed to providing financial support to assist developing countries in their climate actions.

• Emphasis is placed on technology transfer and capacity building to enable effective climate action in developing countries.

Other Information:

--> Full implementation of its goals present challenges, including the need for NDCs, adequate financial support, and technological innovation. Overcoming these challenges will require sustained political will, collaboration, and innovation.

- Representatives from 180 countries

-Succesor to kyoto protocol

-EU called for emissions to decrease by 50 percent by 2050

- Japan, Russia and USA vigorously disagreed and thought it was too harsh

- Compromise reached--> the world will strive towards deep cuts in Global emmissions

-Criticized as vague & not achieving anything at all