* "Practical Criticism" (1929):

* This work involved an empirical study where Richards gave his Cambridge students poems without any authorial or contextual information. He then analyzed their responses.

* The goal was to examine how readers actually interact with texts, free from preconceived notions about the author or historical context.

* Richards discovered significant inconsistencies and misunderstandings in his students' interpretations, highlighting the importance of close reading and the need for a more rigorous approach to literary analysis.

* How it relates to Formalism:

* Emphasis on the Text Itself:

* "Practical Criticism" exemplifies a core formalist principle: focusing on the text as an independent entity. By stripping away external information, Richards forced readers to confront the poem's internal workings.

* This aligns with the formalist idea that a literary work's meaning resides within its language, structure, and form, rather than in its relation to the author's life or historical context.

* Close Reading:

* The study promoted the practice of "close reading," a meticulous analysis of the text's language, imagery, and rhetorical devices. This is a hallmark of New Criticism, the formalist movement Richards helped shape.

* Objectivity:

* Richards strived for a more "scientific" approach to literary criticism, seeking to move away from subjective impressions and towards objective analysis of the text. This aligns with the formalist desire to establish a more rigorous and systematic method for interpreting literature.

In essence, "Practical Criticism" provided empirical evidence for the need to focus on the intrinsic qualities of a literary work, laying a foundation for the formalist principles that would dominate literary criticism

for decades.

This poem presents the interior monologue of J. Alfred Prufrock, an insecure man filled with existential anxiety who reflects on his life, the passage of time, and his inability to make decisions. Through fragmented imagery and literary references, Eliot portrays the protagonist’s alienation and emotional paralysis in modern society.

Characteristics of the Work

• Dramatic Monologue: Influenced by poets like Robert Browning.

• Use of Free Verse: Breaks away from traditional structures.

• Cultural and Literary References: Includes allusions to Dante, Shakespeare, and the Bible.

• Themes: Insecurity, time, alienation, and the impossibility of communication.

T.S. Eliot’s The Waste Land (1922) is a great example of formalist writing because it focuses on the structure, language, and style of the poem rather than the author's life or history. The poem is broken into different sections with changing voices and many literary references, making it complex and unique. Instead of telling a clear story, it creates meaning through its words, symbols, and the way it is written. This fits with formalism because the poem’s message comes from the text itself, not outside influences.

Shklovsky’s work is formalist because it focuses on the structure and style of literary texts rather than their historical context or the author’s intentions. He emphasizes that literature should be analyzed based on how it is written rather than what it means. By shifting attention to literary devices and techniques, he argues that the form of a work is just as important as its content. His ideas influenced later literary studies, encouraging scholars to study how language, structure, and narrative techniques shape meaning rather than simply interpreting a text’s message.