The International Dyslexia Association defines dyslexia as a learning disability of neurobiological origin.

Characteristics include: difficulty with accurate/fluent word recognition, poor spelling and decoding abilities

Students with dyslexia may experience difficulties in reading comprehension

Early diagnosis is essential to narrow the achievement gap for students, signs appear as early as the first grade

There can be signs of strengths in reasoning, critical thinking, concept formation or problem solving

Dyslexia occurs across all cultural, ethnic and socioeconomical groups

Difficulty with phonological processing

Dyslexia often runs in the family

Dyslexia also occurs with other conditions; dysgraphia, dyscalculia, oral language impairment, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity
disorder

Early diagnosis can provide interventions leading to self-awaeness, self-empowerment and accommodations to be successful in life and school

Dyslexia is a neurobiological disorder with distinct "neural signatures"

These signatures are in the hemisphere of the brain where the language is, the left temporo-parietal region, the left frontal region, and the left occipito-temporal region

dyslexic brain differences can involve brain chemicals, neural oscillations, and risk genes

Children with signs of dyslexia: weakness in letter identification, letter-sound knowledge, phonological awareness, and rapid naming

Neural signatures appear before students speak languages, but can change with reading intervention

Brain patterns can help predict outcomes in students with dyslexia

Dyslexia has a genetic component

Gifted students also show neural signatures that could lead to misdiagnosis.

Neural Signatures are:

1. reliable

2. prediciable

3. change with intervention

4. presented in gifted students

Research says early identification and intervention are beneficial

Dyslexia is one type of language-learning disability which affects primarily written language skills such as reading and writing.

There are three major components of language: form, content, and use

Dyslexia represents a subgroup of students that have difficulty in word-level reading and spelling.

With dyslexia, there is a specific deficit when it comes to single-word decoding with a weakness in phonological processing.

Most people with dyslexia have difficulty with phonological processing, including phonological memory, awareness, and the speed of naming.

With phonological awareness, it has to do with knowing and understanding that spoken language can be divided into smaller units such as words, syllables, and phonemes.

Rapid naming means quickly naming digits, letters, objects, or colors. "It requires efficient retrieval of phonological information from long-term memory, the same type of ability that is the foundation of word identification-decoding." (California Department of Education, 2017, p. 13)

When a student has dyslexia, they may also have a history of delayed speech and other early oral language difficulties.

Phonological memory means coding the information that comes from working memory, which is crucial for decoding words that a student may be unfamiliar with.

The most advanced subset of phonological awareness is phonemic awareness

Four key symptoms include inability to sound out new words, difficulty to respond to instruction, limited sight-words, and listening comprehension exceeds reading.

Symptoms vary, depending on whether a student has mild to severe dyslexia

There are indicators in preschool, such as difficulty with nursery rhymes or delayed speech.

Signs in K-1 include inability to create rhyme, difficult with letters and sounds and relying mostly on pictures.

Signs in 2-3 include omission of grammatical ends and spelling errors

Signs in 4-8 struggle as the learning shifts from using learning to read as tool and into reading to learn. "This transition is called the move from “learning to read” to “reading to learn.” (California Department of Education, 2017, p. 19)

Middle and High School students will feel overwhelmed and fatigued if undiagnosed with dyslexia at this point.

There are many strengths with dyslexia, including advanced maturity, strong imagination, and problem-solving abilities.

They also may have strong visual-spatial thinking.

Lastly, students with dyslexia may have a weakness in decoding but strengths in things like reasoning and critical thinking.

Early Identification Is Critical
Students with dyslexia show signs of reading struggles as early as first grade. Without early intervention, the achievement gap between typical readers and those with dyslexia persists and does not close over time.

Universal Screening Should Begin in Kindergarten
Universal screening in general education classrooms helps identify students at risk for dyslexia early. It should be implemented schoolwide, beginning no later than kindergarten and continuing yearly.

Multiple Indicators Are Needed
No single test can diagnose dyslexia. A combination of symptoms, risk factors, and learning history must be considered for accurate identification.

Screening vs. Assessment
Screenings are brief and used with all students to identify those at risk, while assessments are more in-depth and individualized, requiring parent consent and often involving specialists.

Progress Monitoring Tracks Effectiveness
Progress monitoring is used to evaluate whether interventions are helping. It involves ongoing data collection to guide instructional decisions and improve outcomes.

Use of a Multi-Tiered System of Support (MTSS)
California uses MTSS to align academic, behavioral, and social-emotional supports. It includes universal screening, targeted small-group instruction (Tier 2), and individualized intensive intervention (Tier 3).

RtI2 (Response to Instruction and Intervention)
RtI2 emphasizes a data-driven approach to instruction. It integrates general and special education supports to all students and can be used as part of the process before referring a student for special education.

Tiered Instruction Levels

Tier 1: Universal screening and high-quality classroom instruction for all.

Tier 2: Targeted small-group interventions with regular progress checks.

Tier 3: Intensive, individualized instruction with frequent monitoring and smaller student-teacher ratios.

Eligibility for Special Education
Students not making adequate progress in Tier 2 or Tier 3 may be referred for special education evaluation. However, RtI2 cannot be used to delay or deny evaluation if there is a suspected disability.

Assessing English Learners and Family History
Screening must be culturally and linguistically appropriate. Gathering information about a family history of dyslexia can also help guide identification and intervention efforts.