1. Overfishing and Illegal Fishing

   • Depleted fish stocks due to overexploitation.

   • Rampant Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU) fishing, including dynamite and cyanide fishing.

   • Lack of effective enforcement of fishery laws.

2. Limited Access to Modern Equipment

   • Many small-scale fishers use outdated boats and gear.

   • Poor maintenance of fishing vessels leads to safety risks and inefficiency.

3. High Operational Costs

   • Rising fuel prices and cost of maintenance.

   • Difficulty accessing affordable credit or financing options.

4. Climate and Weather Vulnerability

   • Increased typhoons and sea temperature changes affect fish migration and catch volumes.

   • Loss of livelihood during prolonged bad weather.

5. Poor Infrastructure

   • Inadequate fish ports, landing sites, cold storage, and ice plants.

   • Weak value chain and post-harvest facilities result in spoilage and loss of income.

Functional Challenges:

1. Weak Governance and Coordination

   • Overlapping mandates among agencies (e.g., DA-BFAR, LGUs).

   • Inconsistent implementation of fisheries laws (RA 8550, amended by RA 10654).

2. Limited Data and Monitoring

   • Poor data collection on fish stock assessments.

   • Lack of real-time monitoring systems.

3. Inadequate Support Services

   • Limited extension services for capacity-building and training.

   • Weak integration of science and local knowledge in fisheries management.

4. Access Rights Issues

   • Conflicts over municipal water access between small-scale and commercial fishers.

   • Lack of clear delineation and enforcement of fishing zones.

Challenges in Aquaculture

Operational Challenges:

1. Environmental Degradation

   • Water pollution due to poor waste management and feed practices.

   • Destruction of mangroves for fishpond development.

2. Disease and Stock Losses

   • Frequent outbreaks of fish diseases (e.g., white spot syndrome in shrimp).

   • Limited access to quality fry/fingerlings and veterinary services.

3. Feed Supply and Cost

   • Dependence on imported or expensive feeds.

   • Poor feed conversion efficiency in many small farms.

4. Capital and Inputs

   • High start-up and operational costs.

   • Inconsistent supply and high price of fingerlings and inputs.

Functional Challenges:

1. Weak Technical Knowledge

   • Many smallholder aquaculturists lack proper training on good aquaculture practices.

   • Poor record-keeping and management systems.

2. Regulatory Issues

   • Complex permitting process for aquaculture operations.

   • Inconsistent zoning and monitoring of aquaculture areas.

3. Climate Risks

   • Susceptibility to floods, temperature rise, and water salinity changes.

   • Limited adaptive strategies for extreme weather events.

4. Market Access and Value Chain Gaps

   • Lack of organized market linkage and transport systems.

   • Price volatility and exploitation by middlemen.

1.    Governance:

i)      Weak policy and legal framework:

Since devolution in 2013, there has been a lack of a unified national policy and legal framework to guide the fisheries sector nationally in collaboration with devolved county governments. Incoherence in policies developed by the National government and devolved governments has resulted to slow pace in full realization of the potential of aquaculture which could otherwise lead to economic growth and food security. In some cases, there have been conflicts between the two levels of government on the role of each.

ii)      Limited community participation:

In some instances, there's limited participation of stakeholders, including resource users, in the fisheries management process, which can lead to non-compliance with regulations. A gap in involvement especially of women and youth in the decision making on matters aquaculture has slowed the realization of the potential of this sector.

2.    Managerial

i)      Insufficient Institutional Capacity and Coordination

There's a challenge in having a sufficient number of adequately trained and specialized personnel in aquaculture management and extension services at both national and county levels. This includes fish health experts, environmental specialists, and business development advisors. This has limited provision of technical effective support to farmers and thereby hampering full realization of the potential of the sector.

ii)      Poor Linkages and Collaboration

Research findings from institutions like Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute often do not effectively reach farmers leaving them to practice the old traditional fisheries methods which are no longer tenable in the wake of climate change.

Further, there is limited coordination between government bodies and private sector players which somehow stifle investment and limit the growth of the fisheries value chain.

3.    Operational

i)      High Cost and Poor Quality of Inputs

Farmers usually face challenge of poor-quality feeds which is costly as well. This has led to poor fish growth. Equally farmers face an inconsistent supply of high-quality fingerlings. This has been compounded by the limited number of certified hatcheries leaving farmers to purchase from unreliable sources, leading to substandard fingerlings with poor growth rates, genetic issues, or even mislabelled species.

ii)     Disease Outbreaks and Poor Fish Health Management

Fish farmers usually face disease outbreaks that reduce fish population as well as quality. This problem has been compounded by limited number of fish health experts. Inadequate knowledge of farmers and facilities lead to fish stress and increased susceptibility to diseases

iii)    Inadequate Infrastructure and Post-Harvest Losses

Aquaculture faces the challenge of availability of cold storage often leading to post-harvest losses. Farmers lack sufficient skills and knowledge in proper post-harvest handling, leading to physical damage, quality deterioration, and microbial spoilage.

4.    Administration

i)      Data Management and Information Gaps

There is lack of comprehensive and reliable data on aquaculture production, input usage, disease incidence, and economic performance. This makes it difficult for administrators to:

                                          i.         Accurately assess the sector's contribution.

                                         ii.         Identify key challenges and opportunities.

                                        iii.         Formulate evidence-based policies and interventions.

                                       iv.         Monitor progress and evaluate program effectiveness.

Further, there is limited accessibility and dissemination of information to various stakeholders, including farmers, policymakers, and investors, can be poor, hindering informed decision-making.

• IUU Fishing & EU Yellow Card: Vietnam received an EU “yellow card” starting 2017. Between 2018‑2019, seafood export volume to the EU dropped by ~6.5%, and Vietnam’s market share plunged from 18% to 13% in EU seafood imports.

• Territorial Risk: Overlapping sea claims escalate risk; many Vietnamese boats have been intercepted or destroyed in regional waters (In 2024, China reportedly attacked Vietnamese fishing boats near Paracel Islands, sparking diplomatic protest and illustrating regulatory and jurisdictional risks for fishers)

2. Management Challenges

• Fleet Structure & Low Power: 84% of vessels have engine capacity under 90 hp, mostly nearshore operations, intensifying pressure on local stocks leading to overfishing and reducing income per unit effort.

• Data Limitations: Stock assessments are outdated—capture fisheries output in 1995 was 0.93 million t, rising to 3.59 million t in 2018, but further disaggregated fish stock data remains scarce.

• Species Shifts & Value Loss: Overfishing of high-value species has led to declines in size, species quality, and increased proportion of trash fish. Coastal areas (< 50 m depths) yield ~80% of total marine catch, depleting biodiversity.

3. Operational Challenges

• Stagnant Growth & Depleting Stocks:

  • From 2018 to 2024, capture output only grew from 3.59 M t to 3.82 M t (~7% over 6 years).

  • Fishers report diminishing catch rates: previously up to 70 kg/night (e.g., tuna, grouper), many now return empty-handed or only catch low-value squid

• Low Profitability:

  • Income per unit effort declining due to overcapacity and fuel costs.

  • Fragmented landing sites, inadequate cold chains, and lack of vessel facilities reduce efficiency and margins

4. Administrative Challenges

• Fragmented Institutional Setup: Oversight split between MARD, provincial authorities, and MoIT, with inconsistent licensing and overlapping duties causing inefficiencies.

• Logistics & Infrastructure Gaps:

  • 78 fishing ports lack investment relative to fleet size (82,000 vessels); post-harvest facilities (cold chain, storm shelters) are insufficient

  • Behaviors and adoption of modern practices (e.g. vessel tracking, traceability) remain slow

From a functional aspect, one of the major challenges in Thailand’s capture fisheries is the lack of an integrated monitoring, control, and surveillance (MCS) system. Despite efforts to combat IUU (Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated) fishing, there are still gaps in enforcement capacity, especially in remote coastal areas. Limited real-time data sharing between agencies and the absence of consistent monitoring protocols hinder the effectiveness of regulatory measures.

From a comprehensive aspect, the challenge is compounded by the fragmented cooperation among responsible agencies. Fisheries governance in Thailand involves multiple ministries and local authorities, but coordination mechanisms are often weak or ad hoc. Moreover, there is insufficient engagement with local fishing communities, who are key stakeholders but often excluded from policy dialogues and decision-making processes. This lack of participation reduces the effectiveness and sustainability of fisheries management initiatives.

As an island nation with vast ocean territory, the Maldives relies heavily on capture fisheries, particularly pole-and-line tuna fishing, which is globally recognized for its sustainability. Aquaculture, though still in its infancy compared to capture fisheries, is being explored to diversify income sources and enhance food security.

The sector contributes significantly to GDP, employment, and exports, especially in rural communities. However, both capture fisheries and aquaculture face several challenges that threaten their sustainability and growth.

Key Challenges in Capture Fisheries

1. Limited Storage and Processing Capacity

A large percentage of fish caught are exported in raw or semi-processed form, reducing potential income. Lack of canneries, cold storage and freezing facilities lead to poor harvest losses and missed opportunities for value addition. To overcome this challenge, the government started investing in new processing plants and renewable energy-powered cold chains to address this.

2. Overfishing and Resource Management

While pole-and-line fishing is sustainable, monitoring and enforcement of fishing limits is weak in remote atolls. Furthermore, climate impacts such as rising sea temperatures and coral bleaching affect fish habitats and migratory patterns. To mitigate the challenge of overfishing and resource management, stronger data collection, surveillance and community-based management systems are needed.

3. Dependence on Export Markets

The economy is vulnerable to global price shocks and demand fluctuations, especially for skipjack and yellowfin tuna. Lack of diversification remain as challenge for Maldives to address this, due to production of fewer alternative products such as smoked, canned or ready to eat fish. Hence, developing domestic consumption, tourism-linked sales and regional trade remain as potential growth opportunities for the fisheries sector.

Key Challenges in Aquaculture

1. Limited Development and Investment

Aquaculture is still underdeveloped with few commercial farms, due to high startup costs, lack of technical expertise and limited access to finance. There is a need for research and pilot projects to identify viable species and methods.

2. Environmental Concerns

Poorly managed aquaculture can lead to pollution, disease outbreaks and damage to coral reefs. Hence, strict environmental impact assessments and biosecurity protocols are crucial for further development of the sector.

3. Policy and Regulatory Gaps

Existing laws and policies have been more focused on capture fisheries over the years, leading to lack of clear licensing procedures, zoning regulations and incentives for sustainable aquaculture. However, in recent years, the Fisheries Act (enacted in 2019), Aquaculture Regulation (enacted in 2020) require conducting EIAs before issuing aquaculture licenses.

Based on the audit techniques mentioned in the self-learning lessons, we have identified the following techniques useful in the conduct of performance audit for the identified topic:

1. Documentation Review

   • Review laws (e.g., Fisheries Code), agency mandates, MOUs, organizational structures, enforcement guidelines, and compliance records.

2. Interviews

   • With officials from BFAR, DENR, LGUs, and regulatory bodies to understand coordination, role clarity, and enforcement challenges.

3. Multi-Stakeholder Analysis

   • Maps roles, responsibilities, and interactions among agencies and stakeholders; highlights gaps or overlaps in governance.

4. Case Studies

   • In-depth look at implementation of specific policies (e.g., fishery zoning, permitting systems, MPA enforcement).

5. Focus Groups

   • Engages multiple perspectives (e.g., fisherfolk, enforcers, local officials) to assess how governance and regulation are experienced on the ground.

6. Expert Panels / Expert Opinion

   • Used to assess the adequacy of regulatory frameworks, role clarity, and effectiveness of enforcement mechanisms.

Specific audit techniques:

Interviews

Documentation Review

Direct Observation

Surveys

Expert opinion

• documentation review

• physical examination

• expert opinion (if required)

• panel experts (if necessary)

• data analysis

• economic analysis

Fisheries in Liberia can broadly be split into two types: artisanal and semi-artisanal coastal fisheries, which make up around 86% of fishing in the country; and industrial fisheries.

Industrial Fishing Catch Efforts in Liberia

Years Annual catch in Tons

2023 4,991,043

2022 5,133,931

Artisanal Fishing Catch Effort in Liberia

Years Annual catch in Tons

2023 2.268.115

2022 2.370.400

Liberia’s National Fisheries and Aquaculture Authority (NaFAA) reports that there are significant concerns over illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing in Liberia ( See section 4.1 and 4.4). With all of these efforts, there are still limitations in realizing the potential of Liberia’s fisheries due to the civil wars the country faced from 1989 to 1997, and 1999–2003. The war caused damage to piers and port facilities; ports have not been dredged since the war. This makes it impossible for larger vessels to dock, and the costs of dredging continue to increase the longer the time goes on. This is one reason why it is not possible for larger commercial vessels that fish in Liberia’s EEZ to unload their catch in Liberia, instead heading to other West African nations (e.g., Senegal, Cote d′Ivoire) before catches are sold on for consumption.