Text: Margaret Cavendish was the Duchess of Newcastle in the 1600s. 

She was a feminist scientist and a philosopher.

Demographics:

DOB - 1623.

Death - December 15, 1673.

Born in Colchester, United Kingdom

Early life/Background:

- Born into wealth, she was the youngest of her 8 siblings.      -Her father is Thomas Lucas and her mother is Elizabeth Leighton.

- She was privately tutored and in 1642 she was sent to live with her sister in Oxford to work with the queen since she wasn’t allowed to go to college. Although she was on Oxford, she couldn’t learn there and was only there to serve the Queen.

Legacy:

 - Fought against the constraints of women’s lives

- One of the first feminist/female scientist and philosophers

- Wants women free rights and for women to be equal to men. 

Hardships: 

• Her appeal to the republican Cromwelliam regime to gain income for her husband’s estate did not succeed due to being considered traitors.

• Her writing violated social and moral boundaries because she openly published her philosophical and moral writing which was considered improper for an English woman. 

Achievements:

• Wrote dozen of works of natural philosophy

• She published her first book in 1953 called Poems and Fancies

• Published books on a theory of atoms saying the universe was made of atoms that were elements

• Also wrote about gender inequalities toward women

Sources:

• Paris review blog website

 https://www.theparisreview.org/blog/2019/04/15/the-royally-radical-life-of-margaret-cavendish/ 

• University of Nottingham

https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/manuscriptsandspecialcollections/collectionsindepth/family/newcastle/biographies/biographyofmargaretcavendish,duchessofnewcastleupontyne  (c1623-1673).aspx 

• Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy

https://iep.utm.edu/margaret-cavendish/#:~:text=Cavendish%20wrote%20half%20a%20dozen,as%20materialist%2C%20vitalist%20and%20panpsychist

• English Heritage.org website

• https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/learn/histories/women-in-history/margaret-cavendish/#:~:text=A%20prolific%20writer&text=But%20her%20appeal%20to%20the,Poems%20and%20Fancies%2C%20in%201653

  
  

  
  

Demographics:

• Place of Birth: Rue Saint Denis, Paris, France

• Date of Birth: April 1, 1776

• Age at Death: 55 years

• Family status: Wealthy, high class family. Her father was the director of the Bank of France. 

• Education: No formal education, she was mostly self-taught by using the books in her father’s library. 

• Race: Caucasian

• Ethnicity: European

• Gender: Female

Hardships:

• Lack of support from her family and society, her parents did not want her to be educated. 

• Was not allowed into the engineering school of École Polytechnique because she was a woman. 

• She used a false name to obtain notes from some of the classes. 

Legacy:

• Created a math theorem named “Sophie Germain’s Theorem.”

• Made great strides in number theory, which are implemented into mathematics today.

• Proved the first case of Fermat’s Last Theorem.

• Inspired other women mathematicians to pursue their career.

Achievements:

• Became the first woman to win a prize from France’s Royal Academy.

• Was the first known woman who managed to make great progress in mathematics.

• She came up with her own theorem, the Sophie Germain theorem.

Early Life:

• Confined in her house due to protests of the French Revolution.

• Plentiful time to discover her father’s library, discovered her love for math through this situation.

• Parents did not want her to become educated because it was unheard of for women.

• Deprived her of heat and food so she would stay in bed, but she studied in secret at night.

• Eventually her parents came to terms with the fact that they couldn’t stop her.

Links:

• https://www.newscientist.com/people/sophie-germain/

• https://www.gcsu.edu/sites/files/page-assets/node-808/attachments/kagele.pdf

Born: January 20th 1758 (In Montbrison, Loire, France)

Death Date: February 10th 1836

Background:

• Spoke Latin, French and English

• She went to school at a convent (1761 - 1771)

• This woman married into a noble family on December 16, 1771 in order to thwart a marriage to a 50 year old (She was 14!!!)

• Her father (Jacques Paulze) was a parliamentary lawyer and financier

• Paulze’s mother (Claudine Thoynet Paulze) passed away when she was three years old

• This french chemist participated in the laboratory with her husband (scientist Antoine Lavoisier) 

• Believed that the French revolutionaries were the cause of her husband’s death

Importance: 

• Contributed heavily to understanding chemistry in the late 1700s, helped translate several works, and helped bring her husband’s works to the foreign fields. 

Achievements: 

• This remarkable woman contributed to standardizing the scientific method that we know today. 

• Additionally, she created multiple sketches and engravings of laboratory instruments used by Lavoisier, her husband, and his colleagues. 

• Furthermore, she also edited and published Lavoisier's Memoirs as well as translated works from foreign scientists for her husband so that he remained updated with his work. 

• She was able to paint portraits of scientific thinkers she hosted in her salon, such as Benjamin Franklin

• Translated Richard Kirwan’s ‘Essay on Phlogiston(a fire-like element which is gained/released during material combustion) and the Constitution of Acids’,

• Published ‘Memories de Chimie’, which were the last of Lavoisier’s papers and ideas 

Hardships & Challenges:

• In the journey of this woman, she experienced a sudden bankruptcy moment because of changes in government and had financial and property issues (Thankfully, her property was returned afterwards)

• After ten years, she left the convent and became her father’s hostess and studied chemistry and language on her own

Legacy:

• Paulze recovered all of Lavoisier’s notebooks and chemical apparatuses which now in part of the largest collection outside of Europe in Cornell University

• Her drawings are part of Lavoisier’s ‘Elementary Treatise on Chemistry’ and showed all the groundbreaking instrumentation and equipment Lavoisier’s used

• Her strict records are part of the validity of Lavoisier’s findings

• Translated and critiqued while adding footnotes to ‘Essay on Phlogiston and the Constitution of Acids’ (she was finally credited for translating such in later editions)

• She eventually became the “mother of modern chemistry”.

Sources:

• https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00897980249a#:~:text=She%20drew%20many%20sketches%20and,discussed%20new%20chemistry%20and%20ideas.

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie-Anne_Paulze_Lavoisier

• https://www.chemeurope.com/en/encyclopedia/Marie-Anne_Pierrette_Paulze.html#:~:text=She%20was%20thrown%20into%20bankruptcy,Lavoisier's%20notebooks%20and%20laboratory%20equipment.

• https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/marie-paulze-lavoisier

• She translated and commented on Isaac Newton’s work “Principia Mathematica” which contained the basic laws of physics.``

• Found that energy is proportional to mv^2

• wrote multiple books about physics

• Her ideas were in Diderot’s Encyclopedia

• thought that the single force of gravity tied the universe together

Legacy:

• Her actions set forth movement for women’s rights

• Strived for hers and other women’s rights to talk about math and science on an equal level with men

• Talented mathematician and experimental physicist

Demographics:

• Gabrielle-Émilie Le Tonnelier de Breteuil

• Was born into a wealthy family on December 17, 1706

• Grew up in Paris, France

• Died after giving birth to her child at 42

• She died on September 10, 1749 

• Did fencing and other sports

• husband was Marquis du Chatelet

• Learned 6 languages at the age of 12

• was Voltaire’s mistress and lover

Hardships:

• didn’t have a formal education

• Feared she wouldn’t survive her pregnancy and soon died giving birth at 42

• Her mother didn’t approve of her studying science

Sources:

https://departments.kings.edu/womens_history/emilieduchat.html#:~:text=Emilie%20is%20a%20women%20who,it%20came%20to%20studying%20sciences.

https://www.aps.org/apsnews/2008/12/emilie-du-chatelet

https://www.newscientist.com/article/2090136-the-lost-women-of-enlightenment-science/

Background

• Born in 1750, died in 1848(98 years old)

• German astronomer that was obsessed with comets and became the first woman to discover a comet and discovered many more.

  Early Life/Education

• Her father died before she was born and contracted typhus at 10 years old, which caused her growth to her stunted

• While she didn’t receive a formal education, she was tutored by her stepfather

  Hardships

• Because she was 4’3 she was neglected by many of her fellow scholars

• Her brother, William Herschel, took credit for most of her work and even earned four times as much as her.

• Even though her work was revolutionary, she faced heavy mockery for her work

• The only way to keep her correspondents was to keep her “ feminine humility”

  Awards

• She won a Gold Medal and Honorary Membership of the Royal Astronomical Society, which was awarded for achievements in astronomy for the Royal Society.

• She won the Honorary Membership of the Royal Irish Academy which is awarded to people who are exceptional at science

• She won Gold Medal of Science from the King of Prussia and was the only one to receive this award

• Even when she was in the waning years of her life, Caroline Herschel was still winning awards which shows her brilliant mind

  Legacy

  Caroline Herschel left a lasting impact on the world. Her work on comets and Nebulae helped form theories about the structures of our galaxy. She also paved the way for women in science to excel and furthered the rights of women.

  Works Cited

• https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/caroline-herschel-first-paid-female-astronomer#:~:text=During%20her%20lifetime%20she%20received,inscription%20for%20her%20tombstone%20herself.

• https://www.mentalfloss.com/posts/facts-about-childhood-dream-jobs

• https://public.nrao.edu/blogs/how-shall-we-remember-caroline-herschel/

• https://artsandculture.google.com/exhibit/astronomical-discoveries-of-the-herschel-family/GwKSW5pqakeYJQ#:~:text=William%20Herschel%20FRS%20(1738%2D1822,moons%20orbiting%20the%20new%20world.

• https://www.schoolsobservatory.org/learn/history/biographies/herschel#:~:text=Early%20Life,vision%20loss%20in%20one%20eye.

• https://www.schoolsobservatory.org/learn/history/biographies/herschel#:~:text=She%20learned%20to%20read%20and,he%20gave%20to%20her%20brothers.&text=When%20Caroline%20was%2022%2C%20she,with%20her%20older%20brother%2C%20William.

• Born December 14, 1631 in London, UK, and lived for 48 years until February 23, 1679.

• Supported Gottfried Leibniz, who discovered Calculus.

• Education was primarily taught by tutors in her house which was the Kensington Palace in London. 

Challenges Anne Conway faced

• Had a lifelong battle with chronic headaches.

• She was first debarred from the University of Cambridge, but his brother, who was also at Cambridge, convinced them to admit her into their campus.

• Animosity grew between the men of Cambridge, due to her countless achievements in philosophy and math.

  Anne Conway’s Achievements & Legacy

  
  

  • Conway made her remote country mansion into an intellectual powerhouse that attracted some of Britain’s most eminent thinkers with the help of her wealthy husband who was absent for most of her life.

  • She also studied philosophy, mathematics, metaphysics (The study of reality), Greek, Hebrew, and French.

  • Believed that there is a hierarchy of species, with God being at the top.

  • Argued against religious philosophies such as God’s creation of other organisms.

  • She introduced the concept of Monade (A complex calculus idea involving different functions) to the inventor of calculus, Gottfried Leibniz 

  
  

• Photo of Kensington Palace.

  https://www.hrp.org.uk/kensington-palace/history-and-stories/the-story-of-kensington-palace/

  
  

  
  

  
  

  Works Cited:

  https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/conway/

  
  

  https://www.oxfordscholastica.com/blog/newton-and-leibniz-the-fathers-of-calculus/#:~:text=Calculus%20is%20commonly%20accepted%20to,philosopher%20and%20mathematician%20Gottfried%20Leibniz

  
  

  https://www.newscientist.com/article/2090136-the-lost-women-of-enlightenment-science/

  
  

  
  

  
  

DEMOGRPHICS:

• Date of birth : April 2, 1647

• born in Frankfurt Am Main, Germany

• Date of Death: January 13, 1717 in Amsterdam, Netherlands

  EARLY LIFE:

  • When she was three her father(Matthias Merian renowned author) died so she grew up with her mother and step-father(Jacob Marel)

  • developed an interest in insects leading to studies of entomology 

  • she learned from and studied under her step-father in artistry

  • in 1665 she married Johaan Andreas Graff, and had her first child three years after they then moved to Nurnberg

  • then from 1675-1680 Her water color paintings were published in a book

  • in 1687 her second daughter was born

  • IN 1697 she published (“Caterpillars, Their Wondrous Transformation and Peculiar Nourishment from Flowers”; the second volume appeared in 1683)

  • Her interest in entomology and drawing led to answers in the field biology specifically in metamorphosis

• Achievements:

  • ran the only all-female scientific illustration workshop in Europe

  • described life cycles of nearly 200 species of insects and amphibians

  • first European woman to go on a scientific expedition alone in South America

  • drew diagrams of metamorphosis 

• Hardships 

  • she was a women and was valued less because of her gender back then 

  • left her husband for 20 years

  • lack of education

  •  She never recovered from a illness she got in Suriname

  •  Merian got a stroke in 1715 that left her partially paralyzed

  • Legacy: https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/maria-sibylla-merian-metamorphosis-art-and-science.html#

    • Sybylla’s work inspired Hans Sloane and Tsar Peter the Great who purchased some of it

    • Carl Linnaeus cited illustrations for several plants and more than 100 new animal species from her work

    • 6 plants, 9 butterflies, two bugs, one spider and one lizard have been named after her

    • Gave rise to anatomical drawings 

    • She was recognized by many men which was highly uncommon back then

IMAGE:

https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/19145639/b2j1mj.jpg?width=1400

Mary Somerville

Demo 

• Birth Name - Mary Fairfax

• Birthday - December 26, 1780

• Death date - November 29 1872

• Birthplace - Roxburghshire, Scotland 

• Family 

  • Parents - Willam George Fairfax (father) and Margaret Charters

  • Husbands - Samuel Greig, Willam Somerville

  • Descendants - Martha Somerville, Thomas Somerville, Woronzow Greig and Margaret Farquhar Somerville

Background

• Went to Musselburgh boarding school at 10

• Her family was rich

• Loved learning at a young age

• Self taught French, Latin, and Greek also loved geometry!

Legacy

• After her death, her autobiographical was published

• The Somerville Collection contains over 10,000 pages

• Somerville College, Oxford was named after her

• Somerville House, a high school is named after her

• One of the Committee Rooms of the Scottish Parliament is named after her

Hardships 

• She was discouraged by others to stop studying mathematics and throw away her dream job. 

• Being a woman made others not accept her

• Her failures made her doubt herself

• She felt like a disappointment to other women

• She was also not allowed to get education

Achievements 

1. She had become the first female to become a part of the Royal Astronomical Society. 

2. Due to her theory of how to calculate the position of Uranus to find an undiscovered planet, a British astronomer had taken this “tip” and found out the existence of Neptune. 

3. She had also earned Patron’s Medal award; this is an award for the encouragement and development of geographical science and exploration. 

4. Her first published book, Proceedings of the Royal Society, had a technique called the “optical prism” which helped with the invention of the kaleidoscope. 

Sources :

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mary-Somerville

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Somerville

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold_Medal_(RGS)

https://www.renishaw.com/en/mary-somerville--40461?srsltid=AfmBOoqCAaOKNNczIcz7TTjO5gzwNv0nH3kzfQ1yE957QaW4ruslbrX_

https://www.undiscoveredscotland.co.uk/usbiography/s/marysomerville.html#:~:text=In%201804%20Mary%20married%20a,in%20the%20world%20around%20her.