Cytoplasm: jelly-like substance inside cells that contains molecules and in some cells organelles

Organelle: structures specialized to perform distinct processes within a cell

Prokaryotic cell: Does not have a nucleus or membrane bound organelles

Eukaryotic cell: Does have a nucleus and membrane bound organelles

Cytoskeleton: network of proteins, such as microtubules and microfilaments, inside a eukaryotic cell that supports and shapes the cell

Nucleus: the storehouse for most of the genetic information, or DNA in cells

Endoplasmic reticulum: interconnected network of thin, folded, membranes

Ribosome: tiny organelles that link amino acids together to form proteins

Golgi apparatus: closely layered stacks of membrane-enclosed spaces that process, sort, and deliver proteins

Vesicle: small membrane bound sacs that divide some materials from the rest of the cytoplam and transport these materials from place to place.

Mitochondrion: supplies energy to the cell

Vacuole: a fluid-filled sac used for the storage of materials needed by the cell

Lysosome: membrane bound organelles that contain enzymes

Centriole: small cylinder shaped organelle made of protein tubes arranged in a circle; aids mitosis

Cell wall: rigid structure that gives protection, support, and shape to cells in plants, algae, fungi, and bacteria

Chloroplast: organelle composed of numerous membranes that are used to convert solar energy into chemical energy; contains chlorophyll

Cell membrane: double-layer of phospholipids that forms a boundary between a cell and the surrounding environment and controls the passage of materials into and out of the cell

Phospholipid: a molecule that is composed of three basic parts; a charged phosphate group, glycerol, and two fatty acid chains.

Fluid mosaic model: describes the arrangement of the molecules that make up a cell membrane

Selective permeability: allows some, but not all, materials to cross into the cell

Receptor: a protein that detects a signal molecule and performs an action in response

Passive transport: movement of molecules across a cell membrane without energy input from the cell

Diffusion:  moves substances across the membrane

Concentration gradient: difference in the concentration of a substance from one location to another

Osmosis:  to move across a semipermeable membrane from an area of higher water concentration to an area of lower water concentration

Isotonic: same concentration of dissolved particles as the cell

Hypertonic: has a higher concentration of dissolved particles then a cell

Hypotonic: has a lower concentration of dissolved particles than a cell

Facilitated diffusion:  the diffusion of molecules across a membrane through transport proteins

Active transport: energy requiring movement of molecules across a membrane from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration

Endocytosis: the process of taking liquids or fairly large molecules into a cell by  engulfing them in a membrane

Phagocytosis: is a type of endocytosis in which the cell membrane engulfs large particles; also means, “Cell Eating”

Exocytosis: the opposite of endocytosis, the release of substances out of a cell by the fusion of a vesicle with the membrane

Cells are the basic unit of life.

The cell theory grew out of the work of many scientists and improvement in the microscope. 

Many scientists contributed to the cell theory.

More was learned about cells as microscopes improved.

The cell theory is a unifying concept of biology.

Hook: The first one to identify the cell.

Lebjiinghook: He called the species found in the pond water animicals.

Shleden: Discovered plants have cells.

Schwann: Said all living things are made up of cells.

Vercihow: all cells come from preexisting cells.

Early studies led to the development of the cell theory.

The cell theory has three principals.

Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and most internal structures of eukaryotic cells.

 All cell share certain characteristics.

All cells must have:

There are two cell types: eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cells. 

Lesson 3.2

Cells have an internal structure

The cytoskeleton has many function

Several organelles are involved in making and processing proteins.

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Other organelles have various functions.

Plant Cells have cell walls and chloroplasts

Lesson 3.3

Cell membranes are composed of two phospholipid layers.

Forms a boundary between inside and outside of the cell

Controls passage of materials

Tail of a phospholipid, is nonpolar  hydrophobic

Head of a phospholipid, is polar hydrophillic

Chemical signals are transmitted across the cell membrane

Intracellular receptor

Membrane receptor

Section 4

 

Materials move across membranes because of concentration differences.

Passive transport does not require energy input from a cell

Diffusion “simple”

Osmosis 

Some molecules can only diffuse through transport proteins.

DIffusion and Osmosis are types of passive transport

Hypo = below concentration

Hypo = above concentration

Iso = same concentration

Solvent: present in the highest quantity. Typically water

Solute: What is dissolved in the solvent.

Solution: Solvent and Solute

Cells use energy to transport materials that cannot diffuse across a membrane

Diffusion and Osmosis are types of passive transport

Active transport requires energy input from a cell and enables a cell to move a substance against its concentration gradient.

A cell can import and export large materials or large amounts of material in vesicles dring the processes of endocytosis and exocytosis

Lesson 1

Biosphere-all organisms and the part of Earth where they exist.

Biodiversity-variety of life within an area.

Species-group of organisms so similar to one another that they can breed and produce fertile offspring.

Biology-scientific study of all forms of life.

Organism-any individual living thing.

Cell-basic unit of life.

Metabolism-all chemical processes that synthesize or breakdown materials within an organism.

DNA-molecule that stores genetic information in all organisms.

Lesson 2

System-changing, organized group of related parts that interact to form a whole.

Ecosystem-collection of organisms and nonliving things, such as climate, soil, water, and rocks, in an area.

Homeostasis-regulation and maintenance of constant internal conditions in an organism.

Evolution-change in a species over time; process of biological change by which descendents come to differ from their ancestors.

Adaption-inherited trait that is selected for over time because it allows organisms to better survive in their environment. 

Lesson 3

Observation-using the senses to study the world; using tools to collect measurements; examining previous research results.

Data-observations and measurements recorded during an experiment.

Hypothesis-proposed explanation or answer to a scientific question.

Experiment-process that tests a hypothesis by collecting information under controlled under controlled conditions.

Independent variable-condition or factor that is manipulated by scientists during an experiment.

Dependent variable- experimental data collected through observation and measurement.

Constant-condition that is controlled so that it does not change during an experiment.

Theory-proposed explanation for a wide variety of observations and experimental results.


Lesson 4

Microscope-tool that provides an enlarged image of an object.

Gene-specific region of DNA that codes for a particular protein.

Molecular genetics-study of DNA structure and function on the molecular level.

Genomics-study and comparison of genomes within a single species or among different species.

Lesson 5

Biotechnology-use and application of living things and biological processes 

Transgenic-organism whose genome has been altered to contain one or more genes from another organism or species.

As scientists learned more about nature and science, they began to challenge established ideas like spontaneous generation.

This was the beginning of what is now known as scientific inquiry. Scientists use three key methods to research and analyze data: observation, investigation, and experimentation. Scientific inquiry begins with observation. It is a process in which scientists gather information in an orderly manner. They record their observations, which become data that they categorize. Data is of two types: Numerical data is called quantitative data.Descriptive data, data that cannot be counted, is called qualitative data. An example of quantitative data is, "A plant has 10 leaves." An example of qualitative data is, "The leaves are healthy."

Based on the data she's gathered, a scientist may propose a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a question framed by a scientist to explain a set of observations. It's a prediction that must be testable. So the scientist must conduct experiments or do more investigation.

A hypothesis isn't always proven correct. Experiments or investigation may prove the hypothesis wrong. Then the scientist must reformulate the hypothesis and start over again.

Common Metric Units
Length1 meter = 100 centimeters1000 meters = 1 kilometer
Mass1 kilogram = 1000 grams
Volume1 liter = 1000 milliliters
Temperature0°C = freezing point of water100°C = boiling point of water

Biology, the study of life, is the science on which many kinds of study are based: medicine, nutrition, molecules, ecosystems, and more. Several themes, such as evolution and energy transfer, are consistent throughout Biology's many disciplines.

Research methodologies have undergone a significant change over the years. Observation, investigation, and experimentation remain the backbone of research, but microscopes and computers have greatly enhanced scientific knowledge and study.

The data gathered by researchers must be organized and analyzed so that it is useful. Tables and graphs are good ways to represent data.

Explore some exciting careers in biology and its interdisciplinary branches. Perhaps you'll find the career you're meant for!

Everything in our enormous universe is either matter or energy. Matter defines the physical objects; energy drives them to perform work. The study of matter and how it reacts is chemistry. The study of energy is physics.

Biology incorporates both. This lesson is about some basic chemistry because when you know that, you will understand biology better.

Covalent bonds are generally stronger than ionic bonds. Also, covalent bonds form when neutral atoms share electrons, instead of ions. How atoms share electrons depends on how the electrons in different atomic orbitals are distributed.

Most atoms have more than one orbital around their nucleus. As the atomic number of an atom increases, the number of orbitals also increases. The outermost orbital, called the valence shell, is the one that forms the bond. Atoms bind to one another so that the valence shell of each atom has eight electrons. Again, let's use the element carbon to explain.

The carbon atom contains six electrons and has two orbitals: two electrons in the one closer to the nucleus and four in the outer one. So the carbon atom seeks other atoms with four electrons in their valence shells to share so that each atom has eight electrons. Look at the picture to see how carbon and oxygen share electrons to form carbon dioxide.

In organisms, compounds rarely exist as pure substances. They typically form mixtures with other compounds. There are three types of mixtures:solutions, suspensions, and colloids. Mixtures can be of any two or more chemical compounds, but in biology, we mostly study mixtures of water with other compounds. (Remember, all living things are mostly water.)

When water mixes with a compound, it forms an aqueous solution.Aqueous solutions differ in density of concentration measured by molarity. Molarity is the number of moles of a chemical compound dissolved per liter of water. In other words, the higher the molarity, the higher the concentration.

You can see the difference between solutions and suspensions in a simple experiment. Add a spoonful of salt to a glass of water. Stir until you don't see the salt anymore. In another glass of water add some soil.No matter how long you stir this mixture, the soil won't dissolve.

So that's one difference: a solution is a mixture in which a solute (in this case, salt) dissolves in a solvent (in this case, water). Also, the solution is clear. Substances like salt and sugar homogenize completely in water so that you can't see any solid particles.

The water to which you added soil is cloudy. It's called a suspension because the soil particles are suspended in the water. They can sediment, or settle to the bottom, if left undisturbed. Also, in a suspension, it's possible to separate the particles from the liquid because they're big.

It's important to know a little chemistry in order to understand biological systems because all living things are composed of chemical compounds of some sort. An atom is the basic unit of matter, consisting of three main parts: protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons have a positive charge, and electrons have a negative charge. Neutrons are neutral.Atoms of the same type combine to form an element. All atoms of the same element have the same number of protons, which give it its atomic number. Elements arranged in order of their atomic numbers from smallest to largest form the periodic table.

Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. Isotopes have many uses in medicine, food preservation, and other professions.

Atoms with fewer or more electrons than protons are called ions.Positive ions can combine with negative ones to form ionic bonds, which are weak. Conversely, covalent bonds are strong. They are formed when neutral atoms share electrons.

An element is the one of atom.

Proton, neutron, electrons, three parts of a atom.

Nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons.

Atomic number = number of protons.

Atomic number can be found on the periodic table.

Number of protons=electron if it is neutral.

Mass number - atomic number = neutron.

Positive ion = cation    negative = anion. 

Ionic bonds form between oppositely charged ions usually between metals and nonmetals.

Ionic bonds are the full transfer of electrons between metals and nonmetals.

A covalent bonds form when atoms share a pair of electrons. Happens between two nonmetals.

A solution is formed when one substance dissolves in another.

Solvents dissolves another substance .

Solute is dissolved.

Salt is a nacl. 

The ph scales ranks from 0-14 middle number is 7  acidic high h+ concentration

7-above low h+ concentration more basic. 

Neutrals are around 7.

Monomer is one thing many mers is  a polymer.

4 types of macromolecules

1:Carbohydrates=sugars   C-O-H

Monosaccharides are simple sugars

Polysaccharides are starches,cellulose and glycogen. 

 2: lipids are fats.

C-H-o

Are nonpolar. Are the polymer and monomer is the fatty acids

They are hydrophobic. - [water fearing]  

[Water loving] -hydrophilic.

Saturated is solid unsaturated is liquid .

Phosphate are the head the tails or lipid or nonpolar. 

Proteins are polymers of amino acid monomers.

Another name for protein is polypeptide.

Incorrect amino acids change  proteins structure and function.

Nucleic acids are the polymer of monomers called nucleotides.

Cellular energy is know as         

                                                    [  ----- ]

                                               [                 ]

                                          [         ATP.     ]

                                             [                  ]

                                                 [ -----]

 

 Bonds break and form during chemical reactions.

Bond energy is the amount of energy that breaks the bond.

Activation energy is the amount of energy that needs to be absorbed to start reaction.

Exothermic reaction released.

Endothermic absorbs more energy that released.  

 

 

Catalyst are use for speeding up a reaction by lowering the activation energy.

Enzymes are protein catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by lowering activation energy.

All enzymes end of- ase 

Lock and key.

Atom-smallest basic unit of matter.

Element-substance made of only one type of atom that cannot be broken down by chemical means.

Compound-substance made of atoms of different elements that are bonded together in a particular ratio.

Ion-atom that has gained or lost one or more electrons.

Ionic bond-chemical bond formed through the electrical force between oppositely charged ions.

Covalent bond-chemical bond formed when two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons. 

Molecule- two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds; not necessarily a compound.

Lesson 2

Hydrogen bond-attraction between a slightly positive hydrogen atom and a slightly negative atom.

Cohesion-attraction between molecules of the same substance.

Adhesion-attraction molecules of different molecules of different substances.

Solution-mixture that is consistent throughout; also called a homogenous mixture.

Solvent-substance in which solutes dissolve and that is present in greatest concentration in a solution.

Solute-substance that dissolves in a solvent and is present at a lower concentration than the solvent.

Acid-compound that donates a proton when dissolved in a solution.

Base-compound that accepts a proton when dissolved in solution.

pH-measurement of acidity; related to free hydrogen ion concentration in solution.

Lesson 3

Monomer-molecular subunit of a polymer.

Polymer-large,carbon-based molecule formed by monomers.

Carbohydrate-molecule composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; includes sugars and starches.

Lipid-nonpolar molecule composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; includes fats and oils.

Fatty acid-hydrocarbon chain often bonded to glycerol in a lipid.

Protein-polymer composed of amino acids linked by peptide bonds; folds into a particular structure depending on bonds between amino acids.

Amino acid-molecule that makes up proteins; composed 

Nucleic acid-polymer of nucleotides; the genetic material of organisms.

Lesson 4

Chemical reaction- process by which substances change into different substances through the breaking and forming of chemical bonds.

Reactant-substance that is changed by a chemical reaction.

Product-substance formed by a chemical reaction.

Bond energy-amount of energy needed to break a bond between two particular atoms; or the amount of energy released when a bond forms between two particular atoms.

Equilibrium- condition in which reactants and products of a chemical reaction are formed at the same rate.

Activation energy- energy input necessary to initiate a chemical reaction.

Exothermic- chemical reaction that yields a net release of energy in the form of heat.

Endothermic- chemical reaction that requires a net input of energy.

Lesson 5

Catalyst- substance that decreases activation energy and increases reaction rate in a chemical reaction.

Enzyme- protein that catalyzes chemical reactions for organisms.

Substrate- reactant in a chemical reaction upon which an enzyme acts.

          Cytoskeleton | -supports and shapes cell-provides strength-Helps        position and transport organelles
          Nucleus | -stores genetic information-controls most of the organelles
          Rough endoplasmic reticulum  | -transports material through the cell-produces proteins
          Smooth endoplasmic reticulum | -makes cellular products like hormones and lipids.
          Mitochondria | -energy source for the cell
          Vacuoles | -Fluid filled sacs that hold material
          Lysosomes  | -contains enzymes to digest material
         Centrioles | -tubes found in the centrosome 
         Cell wall | -provides rigid support
         Chloroplast | -converts solar energy to chemical energy
         Centrosomes  | -where microtubules are produced

                 -branched chain         -ring.

active​ ​transport,​ ​and​ ​passive​ ​transport.​ ​Active​ ​transport​ ​requires​ ​chemical​ ​energy​ ​from​ ​the​ ​cell 

to​ ​retrieve​ ​the​ ​molecules​ ​that​ ​it​ ​needs.​ ​Passive​ ​transport,​ ​on​ ​the​ ​other​ ​hand,​ ​requires​ ​no​ ​energy 

from​ ​the​ ​cell.​ ​Molecules​ ​can​ ​move​ ​across​ ​the​ ​cell​ ​membrane​ ​using​ ​passive​ ​transport.​ ​It​ ​is​ ​know 

to​ ​move​ ​from​ ​high​ ​to​ ​low​ ​concentration.​ ​There​ ​are​ ​two​ ​types​ ​of​ ​passive​ ​transport.​ ​The​ ​first​ ​is 

Diffusion,​ ​and​ ​the​ ​second​ ​is​ ​Osmosis.​ ​There​ ​are​ ​three​ ​types​ ​of​ ​solutions​ ​that​ ​are​ ​the​ ​cause​ ​of 

passive​ ​transport.​ ​These​ ​include;​ ​Isotonic,​ ​Hypotonic,​ ​and​ ​Hypertonic.​ ​Now,​ ​we​ ​shall​ ​walk 

through​ ​an​ ​experiment​ ​that​ ​describes​ ​what​ ​each​ ​solution​ ​is,​ ​and​ ​the​ ​results,​ ​or​ ​outcomes​ ​of​ ​the 

solution. 

Suppose​ ​we​ ​have​ ​a​ ​beaker​ ​of​ ​water.​ ​The​ ​water​ ​has​ ​a​ ​.7mm​ ​of​ ​sugar.​ ​Then,​ ​we​ ​place​ ​in 

a​ ​single​ ​cell,​ ​which​ ​also​ ​has​ ​.7mm​ ​of​ ​sugar.​ ​The​ ​concentration​ ​of​ ​both​ ​the​ ​solute​ ​and​ ​the​ ​solvent 

are​ ​equal.​ ​Therefore,​ ​we​ ​are​ ​lead​ ​to​ ​believe​ ​that​ ​the​ ​solution,​ ​is​ ​isotonic.​ ​The​ ​amount​ ​of​ ​water 

flowing​ ​into​ ​the​ ​cell,​ ​directly​ ​matches​ ​the​ ​amount​ ​of​ ​water​ ​flowing​ ​out​ ​of​ ​the​ ​cell.​ ​The​ ​cell​ ​then 

remains​ ​the​ ​same,​ ​perfectly​ ​shaped.​ ​It​ ​does​ ​not​ ​swell,​ ​now​ ​does​ ​it​ ​shrivel. 

In​ ​the​ ​next​ ​beaker,​ ​we​ ​have​ ​another​ ​single​ ​cell.​ ​The​ ​water​ ​has​ ​3.2mm​ ​of​ ​sugar,​ ​and​ ​the 

cell​ ​has​ ​2.2mm​ ​of​ ​sugar.​ ​The​ ​balance​ ​between​ ​the​ ​solute​ ​and​ ​solvent​ ​have​ ​been​ ​altered.​ ​The 

solution​ ​is​ ​now​ ​called,​ ​hypertonic.​ ​The​ ​water​ ​flowing​ ​into​ ​the​ ​cell,​ ​is​ ​much​ ​much​ ​less​ ​than​ ​the 

amount​ ​of​ ​water​ ​flowing​ ​out​ ​of​ ​the​ ​cell.​ ​Therefore,​ ​the​ ​cell​ ​begins​ ​to​ ​shrivel​ ​up​ ​because​ ​it​ ​loses 

the​ ​liquid​ ​inside​ ​of​ ​it. 

In​ ​our​ ​last​ ​beaker,​ ​we​ ​have​ ​yet​ ​another​ ​single​ ​cell.​ ​The​ ​water​ ​on​ ​the​ ​outside​ ​of​ ​the​ ​cell​ ​is 

2.2mm​ ​of​ ​sugar,​ ​and​ ​on​ ​the​ ​inside​ ​of​ ​the​ ​cell,​ ​it​ ​has​ ​3.3mm​ ​of​ ​sugar.​ ​The​ ​balance​ ​between​ ​the 

water​ ​outside​ ​and​ ​inside​ ​of​ ​the​ ​cell​ ​is​ ​yet​ ​again,​ ​unbalanced.​ ​The​ ​water​ ​flowing​ ​into​ ​the​ ​cell, 

moves​ ​at​ ​a​ ​greater​ ​speed​ ​than​ ​the​ ​water​ ​does​ ​moving​ ​out​ ​of​ ​it.​ ​Therefore,​ ​the​ ​cell​ ​begins​ ​to 

swell.​ ​The​ ​more​ ​that​ ​the​ ​cell​ ​swells,​ ​the​ ​higher​ ​the​ ​possibility​ ​of​ ​it​ ​exploding.  

In the 1st chapter of our steady progression through the course. We discussed atoms and their parts. First, an atom is the smallest unit of matter. Mainly microscopic, it makes up molecules. Molecules are created of atoms. Molecules that are made up of the same types of atom, are then identifies as elements. Elements are gold, carbon, and many, many more. Atoms have three parts to them. Every atom has a nucleus. The particles that are located in the nucleus, have a neutral charge, or no charge, which are called neutrons. Surrounding those, are the particles that have positive charges, protons, and particles that have negative charges, or electrons. Bonds that are formed between electrons, are called covalent bonds. Covalent bonds are formed between shared electrons between atoms. Ionic bonds are formed between two particles with opposite charges. 

In the 2nd chapter, we learned that living things consist of different elements. Also, we learned that an atom is the smallest basic unit of matter. Atoms share a pair of electrons in covalent bonds.  Covalent bonds form when atoms share a pair of electrons. Basically, we learned the basics of cells in the first lesson of chapter two. In lesson two of chapter two, we talked about hydrogen bonds in water, solutions, solvents, polar molecule, and nonpolar molecule. Life depends on hydrogen bonds in water. Polar molecules slightly charged ions, while nonpolar molecules do not have charged regions. Solutions from when one substance dissolves in another. Solvents dissolve other substances.

 Lesson three of chapter two talked about things such as polymers, monomers, and the four types of macromolecules. Monomers are the individual subunits, while polymers are made of monomers. The four main types of macromolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids. Carbohydrates can be broken down to provide energy for cells. Some carbohydrates are part of a cell’s structure. Lipids are hydrophobic, also known as water-fearing. Proteins are polymers made of amino acids. Nucleic acids are polymers of monomers called nucleotides.

 Lesson four of chapter two was a short lesson that talked about chemical reactions and energy. Bonds break and form during chemical reactions. Chemical reactions release or absorb energy. Energy is added to break bonds and is released when bonds form.The short lesson five of chapter two consists of  enzymes and catalysts. Enzymes are protein catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy. The lock-and-key model helps illustrate how enzymes function.

Chapter three talks of things as cell structure and function. This lessons talks of cell theory, cell organelles, cell membrane, diffusion and osmosis, then finally active transport, endocytosis, and exocytosis.  

Lesson one, to get started we talked about the discovery of cell, which was actually founded and named by Robert Hooke. From years 1665-1855 many things help create the cel theory. To identify the cells, to better lenses to see cells in a greater detail, to that all plants are made of cells to saying everything is created by cells, to saying that cells come from other cells. Cell Theory: all organisms are made of cells. All existing cells are produced by other living cells. The cell is the basic unit of life. 

Lesson two of chapter three goes in depth of the cell explaining what makes a cell. 

Eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell which is Eukaryotic cells do have a nucleus while prokaryotic cell do not. Cells have a cell membrane, nucleus cytoskeleton and many many other parts. Plant and Animal cell do differ tho. A Plant cell contains chloroplast, central vacuole, cell wall. Animal cells have centriole, and lysosome. This lesson goes deeper about what each part does for the cell.

Lesson three we don't need to go in great depth but this is important. Cell membrane are composed of two phospholipid layers. This layer controls what goes in or out of the cell what is needed and what it can throw away.

Lesson four is diffusion and osmosis, this is talked about through the chapter. From passive transport which is a transport that no energy is need but now active transport needs energy. This lesson always talks of isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic solutions.

Lesson five goes in depth about active transport, endocytosis and exocytosis.  

As i said active transport needs energy so we use active transport more than you  may think. To running or swimming you need energy. So does active transport. Endocytosis is the process of taking liquids or fairly large molecules into a cell by engulfing them in the membrane. While exocytosis is release of substance out of the cell by fusion of a vesicle with the membrane .