https://www.iucn.org/content/almost-one-five-reptiles-struggling-survive

2nd HERPETOLOGICAL SYMPOSIUM in Goulandris Museum of Natural History
https://www.gnhm.gr/event/2%CE%BF-%CE%B5%CF%81%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C-%CF%83%CF%85%CE%BC%CF%80%CF%8C%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BF-%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%B9-%CE%AD%CE%BA%CE%B8%CE%B5%CF%83%CE%B7-%CE%B6%CF%89/

Chloe Adamopoulou and Anastasios Legakis. 2016. Journal compilation © 2016 REABIC. Zoological Museum, Department of Biology, University of Athens, Panepistimioupolis. First account on the occurrence of selected invasive alien vertebrates in Greece. 
https://elnais.hcmr.gr/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/BIR_2016_Adamopoulou_Legakis_correctedproof-1.pdf 

J. Alan Pounds, Martı´n R. Bustamante, Luis A. Coloma, Jamie A. Consuegra, Michael P. L. Fogden, Pru N. Foster, Enrique La Marca, Karen L. Masters, Andre´s Merino-Viteri, Robert Puschendorf, Santiago R. Ron, G. Arturo Sanchez-Azofeifa, Christopher J. Still & Bruce E. Young. 2006. Nature.  Widespread amphibian extinctions from epidemic disease driven by global warming. 
http://webpages.icav.up.pt/ptdc/bia-bec/099915/2008/9.Pounds%20et%20al%202006%20Nature.pdf  

Michalis Probonas et. all.. 2015. N.H.M.C. Region of Crete. Natura 2000. Nature sclupted by time.  
https://natura2000.crete.gov.gr/fileadmin/printmaterial/pdf_Gia%20PEriferia_Fotogr.%20Album/ALBUM%20FOTOGRAFIKO%2064sel_telik%CE%BF_Small_WEB.pdf

Sakellari Maria. 2015. Conservation, management and development of NATURA 2000 sites in Crete (Technical guide). Region of Crete. Heraklion.
https://natura2000.crete.gov.gr/fileadmin/printmaterial/pdf_Gia%20Periferia_Diatirisi/01_ODIGOS%20GR%20A5_Diatirisis_Tehnikos%2096sel_Small_WEB.pdf

But there are several threats that the herpetofauna on this Mediterranean island are facing. Human activities are intense on the island, resulting in a marked ecological footprint. Reptiles and amphibians are vulnerable organisms, so they are first struck by the change of an ecosystem.
A major problem is also climate change that most affects herpetofauna.
Some examples of threats are shown below.
The greatest threats to ecosystems
of mountain areas (which comprise a large part of the herpetofauna in Crete) are fires, overgrazing and road construction facilitating access to hunters and tourists and, consequently, increasing pressure on habitats and organisms.
Also, tourism development has already seriously affected the beaches where the sea turtle (Caretta caretta) lays its eggs. The construction of new hotel units, entertainment centres and other human activities on the beach should be be controlled.
Overgrazing, which in some cases is accompanied by fire, can be a cause of erosion, degradation of maquis vegetation and habitats in general (https://natura2000.crete.gov.gr/fileadmin/printmaterial/pdf_Gia%20Periferia_Diatirisi/01_ODIGOS%20GR%20A5_Diatirisis_Tehnikos%2096sel_Small_WEB.pdf).
Lithobates catesbeianus (American bullfrog), is a species native to North America and it was introduced as tadpoles in May 1994, about three kilometres east of Agia lake, in Crete.
2000 was the year with the first recorded co-habitation of bullfrogs in Agia lake together with the endemic Cretan water frog (Pelophylax cretensis).
L. catesbeianus has a negative impact on native amphibians (Kraus 2009) and can host the pathogenic fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis) that has been implicated in global amphibian decline (https://elnais.hcmr.gr/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/BIR_2016_Adamopoulou_Legakis_correctedproof-1.pdf). Climate change further promotes infectious disease and erodes biodiversity.
An example showing the spread of these diseases is the growth of the pathogenic fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. This fungus is common in the American bullfrog and is responsible for the reduction of amphibian populations around the world. 
As a result, with the rise in temperature, the endemic frog of Crete is threatened with both competition from the American bullfrog and the fungus that it brought (http://webpages.icav.up.pt/ptdc/bia-bec/099915/2008/9.Pounds%20et%20al%202006%20Nature.pdf).
According to the above, it seems that the herpetofauna of Crete needs immediate assistance and surveillance of its populations.
All the above cases indicate that it is necessary to immediately address the state and local community in general to stop the above threats.

MAIN ASPECTS

1) ENVIRONMENTAL THREATS

1A) Habitat loss, fragmentation, degradation. Almost 11% of reproductive sites for amphibians have disappeared in Italy since 1979 [2]. As for reptiles, data are scarce and mainly expert based, but it is known that 26% of species suffer from habitat degradation (in particular linked to the conversion of traditional agricultural open and ecotonal landscapes into intensive agricultural deserts, as for Lacerta viridis, Podarcis melisellensis, Testudo hermanni). Negative effects are also related to genetic isolation due to habitat fragmentation (e.g. Podarcis raffonae, Eolie Islands) [3]. Urbanisation and agriculture intensification are also important threats for Italian herpetofauna. This is particularly evident in the Po Plain (northern Italy) where huge urban settlements are present. Road mortality (especially during mating season, ) is one of the main concerns, linked to direct mortality and habitat fragmentation [4]. 

1B) Invasive species. This is both an environmental and a societal factor (i.e. the introduction and subsequent release of exotic and invasive pets and game animals). For Italy, this is the case of the American bullfrog Lithobates catesbeianus, which is among the world's top 100 worst invasive species. The species was imported for culinary purposes and spread throughout Italy. Being highly aggressive, since its introduction it has seriously threatened amphibian communities, also being a vector of Batrachochytridium dendobatis, a fungus which causes a deadly disease that is devastating amphibian populations all over the world. There are also exotic fishes that have threatened and even destroyed indigenous amphibian communities. This is also the cause of the disappearance of the alpine populations of Rana temporaria, a consequence of the introduction of salmonoid fish for sport fishing [5], while small and ornamental fishes and invasive crayfishes have decimated paedomorphic newts [6].

1C) Climate change. The decrease in coverage and duration of fresh water habitats, and increase in temperature are having severe impacts on amphibian populations in Italy. Here is a comprehensive study on past and future scenarios [7]

2) SOCIETAL THREATS

2A) Species trading and collecting. Here is an example from Italy https://www.reptiliaexpo.it/. 

2B) Direct persecution. Except in a few cases (i.e. turtles), amphibians and reptiles are generally not loved by people (in Italy we say “non pucciosi” meaning "not cute"). This is especially the case with snakes. It is known that, besides vipers which have been persecuted for decades, every snake is considered to be a poisonous viper by the general public. I personally know old people who swear they have seen vipers drinking milk from a cow.  But in my opinion, this factor has been boosted by the advent of SOCIAL MEDIA. Pictures of harmless snakes (usually with their head smashed) are posted on Facebook, and sometimes the news is retweeted on local newspapers (Fig.2). Despite many species being protected under international, national and regional law, people are still happy to see them killed. Misidentified snakes are called dangerous, and people of the neighbourhood get together to kill the snake that unfortunately has been photographed with a mobile phone. 

3) INDUSTRIAL THREATS

3A) Agriculture. An increasing percentage of forests are being destroyed to gain land to be intensively cultivated by farmers. Not only does agriculture devour soil available for forest and woodlands, but the conversion from traditional to intensive agricultural practices poisons the water supply. There is also the complete disappearance of trees and residual ecological corridors, and intensive agriculture transforms cultivated landscapes into ecological deserts. The impact of chemicals, including pesticides and fertilizers, is huge.  The food industry is one of the main societal challenges for the conservation of biodiversity and of amphibians. Not only do pesticides have a direct toxic effect on herpetofauna (especially on amphibian communities living next to arable land where surface runoff increases the rate of pollutants dissolved in water), but they also have several side effects, as endocrine disruptors, and as the cause of disappearance of many insects which are the major food source for amphibians and reptiles.  Rice fields, a characteristic crop of northern Italy (Italy is the largest European producer of rice) are iconic examples. For years these environments have been considered as vital habitats for wetland species. But the advent of mechanization, monoculture and dry management (i.e. the fields are submerged only for the first emergence of rice plants, after which they are drained) led to dramatic changes in the structure and composition of native flora and fauna, including several species of amphibians and reptiles [8,9].

CHALLENGES 

The conservation of herpetofauna is a huge challenge. It is a global challenge. We need to rethink (at a global scale) our idea of development, and shift towards sustainable development. In 2015 The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, was adopted by all United Nations member states. Among these goals are “sustainable cities and communities”, “climate action”, “protection of life on land” and “below water”. So, every member state needs immediate action to foster these goals. It is therefore an urgent and effective solution to harmonize human development and nature conservation, but the challenge is also to find a good way to involve people in the conservation of amphibians and reptiles, and raise citizen awareness on their importance for ecosystems.

Numerous projects are trying to address the issue. The main strategies to address environmental issues are: i) to census and monitor amphibian and reptile populations, to assess top priorities and emerging conservation issues at national level; ii) to increase protection and restoration of wetlands; iii) increase habitat connectivity, in particular by restoring buffer zones, refuges, ecological corridors with hedgerows and trees connecting Natura 2000 sites (which should also be increased) and creating “blue corridors” of water or “islands of biodiversity” to connect protected areas and to ensure reproductive sites for amphibians and genetic flow among populations; iv) to mitigate the effect of roads, in particular by creating underpasses (Fig 3 available from LIFE TIB project); v) #stoptreekilling (this could be a good name for a social media campaign) as trees are a refuge from predators for amphibians and reptiles, as well as a good source of insect prey, and are essential in water purification and as carbon sinks ; vi) involve citizens in demanding strict application of the Berne Convention, the 92/43/EEC Habitat Directive, the European nitrate directive 91/676/EEC (the European Commission opened an infringement procedure against Italy, which has failed to designate Nitrate Vulnerable Zones, monitor its waters and take additional measures in a number of regions concerned by nitrate pollution [10]), the EU Water Framework Directive, the Washington Convention, and regional legislation; vii) increase the adoption of Integrated Pest Management strategies for agriculture, especially in light of 2009/128/EC on the sustainable use of pesticides (although I do not think that any pesticide uses could ever be considered sustainable); viii) to increase public awareness through citizen science initiatives and  social media campaigns, to convey positive messages about herpetofauna (for fun see this example, http://www.amphibians.org/news/hug-harder-and-smile-bigger/) and also to let people know of other important messages related to their conservation (e.g. don’t release exotic pets in the wild!).

References

[1] Rondinini, C., Battistoni, A., Peronace, V., & Teofili, C. (2013). Lista rossa IUCN dei vertebrati italiani. Comitato Italiano IUCN e Ministero dell’Ambiente e della Tutela del Territorio e del Mare, Roma, 56. Available at: https://www.nationalredlist.org/files/2014/09/2013-italian-vertebratesl.pdf

[2] Salvidio, S., Andreone, F., Angelini, J., Bassu, L., Bennati, R., Bernini, F., et al. (2011). Assessing the status of amphibian breeding sites in Italy: a national survey. Acta Herpetologica 6(1): 119-126. 

[3] Genovesi, P., Angelini, P., Bianchi, E., Dupré, E., Ercole, S., Giacanelli, V et al. (2014). Specie e habitat di interesse comunitario in Italia: distribuzione, stato di conservazione e trend. ISPRA, Serie Rapporti, 194, 2014. Available at: https://www.minambiente.it/sites/default/files/archivio/allegati/rete_natura_2000/rapporto_194_2014.pdf

[4] AA.VV. (2015) LIFE TIB Un corridoio ecologico tra Pianura Padana e Alpi. Available at: http://www.lifetib.it/DOWNLOAD/Libro2/TIB_VOLUME.pdf

[5] Heatwole, H., & Wilkinson, J. W. (2015). Amphibian Biology, Volume 11, Part 4: Status of Conservation and Decline of Amphibians: Eastern Hemisphere: Southern Europe & Turkey (Vol. 11). Pelagic Publishing Ltd.

[6] Denoel, M., Dzukic, G., & Kalezic, M. L. (2005). Effects of widespread fish introductions on paedomorphic newts in Europe. Conservation Biology, 19(1), 162-170.

[7] D’Amen, M., & Bombi, P. (2009). Global warming and biodiversity: Evidence of climate-linked amphibian declines in Italy. Biological Conservation, 142(12), 3060-3067.

[8] Bogliani G. (2008). Habitat risicolo e fauna, pp. 236-253 In: Ferrero A. (ed.), Il riso. Bayer Crop Science, Bologna. Available at: https://www.colturaecultura.it/content/habitat-risicolo-e-fauna#

[9] Giuliano D., Rossi P., Luoni F., Celada C., Bogliani G. (2017). Biodiversity Action Plan per le aree risicole dell’Italia Nord-occidentale. DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.16342.55361. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323969032_Biodiversity_Action_Plan_per_le_aree_risicole_dell'Italia_Nord-occidentale

[10] http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_MEMO-18-6247_en.htm

Author: Bruno Schmidt
Affiliation: Association Hyla (Zagreb, Croatia)

Author: Evangelia Tzaneti
Affiliation: Environmentalist working at the Local Action Group,Attica Islands Network managing the European Program for Local Development CLLD/LEADER 2014-2020

Suriname has a great variety of typical rainforest plants and animals. According to the Fourth National Report to the UNCBD (Source: Fourth National Report to the UNCBD, http://www.gov.sr/media/784137/4th_national_report_cbd_suriname.pdf), the herpetofauna of Suriname is very rich, consisting of 102 amphibian and 175 reptile species, some of which are endemic to the Amazon tropical rainforest, comprising 2.4% of the world’s amphibian and 2.8% of the world’s reptile species.  

Species new to science, endemic and unique flora and fauna have been discovered over the past decades and many more species are yet to be discovered. But with all the threats lurking in their environment…will they ever get a chance to become known to science and the world?

The country has a total of sixteen protected areas, covering an area of approximately 2,118,800 ha which is roughly 13% of the total land area, consisting of eleven nature reserves, four multiple use management areas and one nature park to protect and manage the biodiversity in these areas. (Source: http://www.stinasu.sr/en/protected-areas). A lot of issues, such as politics, a lack of penalties, and weak monitoring and enforcement, work against protection and conservation of biodiversity in these areas, which are frequently overlooked or undervalued compared to extractive natural resources present such as gold, timber and sand. Sadly, due to these activities the percentage of rainforest cover has decreased to below 90% and is still declining. 

Recently, threats to biodiversity, especially herpetofauna have drastically increased. The main threats are:

-          Habitat destruction due to logging, gold mining and road construction for timber transport, and urban settlements for timber companies and gold miners

-          Mercury pollution of water and soil and increased turbidity of water resources from unregulated/ illegal gold mining

-          Illegal hunting and fisheries, which destabilise the food chain

-          Sand mining at sand beaches along the coastline, such as Braamspunt which is a very popular nesting site for sea turtles

-          Over-harvesting of iguana and caiman species and poaching of sea turtles’ eggs. Iguana and caiman, respectively named tree chicken and water chicken by the local people, are very popular as food, especially iguana eggs, which results in a decline of offspring and further decline in the number of iguana individuals. 

-          Ignorance and misunderstanding of snakes, with nearly every snake encounter ending with the snake being killed (both non venomous and venomous species)

-          Introduction of invasive alien species, such as Hemidactylus mabouia (common gecko) Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233708142_Introduced_Species_of_Reptiles_in_Surinam_Notes_on_the_herpetofauna_of_Surinam_VIII

-          Illegal trade in exotic species, such as various snakes, including the emerald tree boa, tortoises and poison arrow frogs

-          Climate change, manifesting in extreme events such as flooding, prolonged drought and longer/shorter rainy/dry seasons)

Stinasu: Foundation for Nature Conservation in Suriname 2019. Nature Conservation Legislation and Protected Areas 

http://www.stinasu.sr/en/protected-areas 

Biological Diversity of Suriname: 
Ministry of Labour, Technological Development and Environment 2013. The Fourth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity 

Office of the President of the Republic Suriname 2015. Fifth National Report to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity
https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/sr/sr-nr-05-en.pdf 

Sea turtle nesting and sand mining:
Monique S. Pool 2013. Braamspunt – Sea Turtle Nesting Site and Sand Mining Concession. Paper presented at the 11^th Regional Symposium Marine Turtle Conservation in the Guianas 29-31 October 2013. 

https://www.academia.edu/4927529/Braamspunt_-_Sea_Turtle_Nesting_and_Sand_Mining 
Rachel Fritts 2017. Sand mining ban lifted on beach in Suriname, causing public backlash. 

https://news.mongabay.com/2017/03/sand-mining-ban-lifted-on-beach-in-suriname-causing-public-backlash/ 
Green Heritage Fund Suriname 2017. Environmental Organizations oppose beach sand mining at Braamspunt 

http://www.greenfundsuriname.org/en/environmental-organizations-oppose-beach-sand-mining-at-braamspunt/ 

Gold mining in Suriname: 
Amazone Conservation Team 2015. Amazone Gold Rush: Gold Mining in Suriname 

https://www.amazonteam.org/maps/suriname-gold/ 
Marieke Heemskerk, Celine Duijves 2015. Small-scale Gold Mining at Brownsberg national Park 

http://social-solutions.net/data/images/reports/WWF-Brownsberg-gold-mining-final-report-091215.pdf 
E.D. Legg, P.E. Ouboter, M.A.P. Wright 2015. Small-scale Gold Mining Related Mercury Contamination in the Guianas: A Review 

http://d2ouvy59p0dg6k.cloudfront.net/downloads/mercury_contamination_in_the_guianas__2015.pdf 

Climate report for Suriname: 
Ministry of Labour, Technological Development and Environment 2013. Second National Communication to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 

http://www.gov.sr/media/1002492/suriname_snc-unfc_on_climate_change_february_2013_-_final_webpreview_v2.3.pdf 

Forest area percentage ranking: 
Index Mundi 2015. Forest area (% of land area) – Country Ranking 

https://www.indexmundi.com/facts/indicators/AG.LND.FRST.ZS/rankings
FAO 1995. State of the World’s Forests 

http://www.fao.org/3/X6953E/X6953E03.htm 

Herpetofauna of Suriname: 

Antoine Fouquet, Jean-Pierre Vacher, Vanessa Kadosoe, Rawien Jairam and Paul Ouboter 2015. Checklist of the Amphibians of the Sipaliwini area, Suriname. Herpetology Notes, volume 8: 63-68 

https://biotaxa.org/hn/article/view/9473/12199 
Paul Ouboter, Rawien Jairam, Cindyrella Kasanpawiro 2012. A Rapid Assessment of the Amphibians and Reptiles of the Kwamalasamutu Region, Suriname. RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment 

https://bioone.org/ebooks/RAP-Bulletin-of-Biological-Assessment/A-Rapid-Biological-Assessment-of-the-Kwamalasamutu-region-Southwestern-Suriname/A-Rapid-Assessment-of-the-Amphibians-and-Reptiles-of-the/A-Rapid-Assessment-of-the-Amphibians-and-Reptiles-of-the/10.1896/054.063.0112 

 

Tuscany is a region in central Italy. In its 23,000 km² it ranges from the sea (including several islands belonging to the Tuscan Archipelago), to the hills (representing the majority of the territory: 66.5%) and the mountains (mainly consisting of the Apennine ridge).

The human population (3.8 million inhabitants) is not uniformly spread and there are many areas with low density especially in the south. Even industrialisation follows a similar pattern.

 

The herpetofauna of Tuscany includes 44 species: 20 amphibians and  24 reptiles, of which three are introduced. 

 

Among the main threats for the herpetofauna of this region are:

 

Habitat loss, alteration, fragmentation and degradation. These are probably the main threats for the herpetofauna in the area, as well as for all biodiversity. 

The great drainage works projects have profoundly changed the last wetlands and have especially damaged amphibian populations.

Also the transformation, pollution, and alteration of watercourses (with some turned into canals) seriously threatens amphibians.

Agriculture causes the disappearance and degradation of habitats. Water catchment especially threatens populations in delicate habitats, like inland waters on islands. 

The cutting of woodland strongly threatens herpetofauna, completely modifying the environment.

Urbanisation has completely destroyed some habitats and associated amphibian populations (e.g. Hyla intermedia, Bufotes balearicus, Pelophylax kl. esculentus). 

Mining has also caused pollution of groundwater (a menace for Speleomantes spp.).

Roads and especially highways represent the main causes of habitat fragmentation. Underpasses designed for amphibians could mitigate this problem.

Finally, tanks, manholes, road shafts, etc. amount to pitfall traps for many species.

 

Invasive species are also a threat for native species. Well known are the cases of competition between the alien Lithobates catesbeianus and native Phelophylax kl. esculentus and between the alien Trachemys scripta and the native Emys orbicularis.

 

Infectious diseases, i.e. those caused by Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, are a threat especially for some amphibians (e.g. Bombina pachypus) and often they are transmitted by alien species (e.g. Lithobates catesbeianus).

 

Climate change and in particular global warming is one of the most probable causes of some documented declines of amphibian populations.

 

Direct persecution due to ignorance or superstition fortunately is declining, but it is still relevant especially towards harmless snakes mistaken for the only venomous Tuscan snake: Vipera aspis.

Collection of specimens in nature is a minor threat especially for breeding and terrariums or for species trading (but this is less frequent than with tropical herpetofauna), and for food purposes (e.g. Pelophylax spp.) cooked during traditional festivals.

 

Ultimately, most herpetofauna populations of Tuscany are still quite intact (with the exception of those in urbanised areas), although the threats are numerous and no (or insufficient) action is taken. Amphibians are certainly more at risk, compared to reptiles.

 

Sources:

Personal observations, data collecting, scientific articles, interview (herpetologist).

Bad management, interference and planning by humans all play a role in the endangerment of reptiles and amphibians. One fundamental problem is the bad opinion and lack of knowledge towards reptiles and amphibians. People still think of them as disgusting evil creatures with no use and purpose and don't understand that they are a vital part of the environment. News articles appear every year about the "surprising“ revelation that snake populations live close to human settlements (?!) (numerous Croatian news articles every year). The oldest residents in rural parts of Croatia still think of reptiles as literally the devil (pers. Obs), and kill them on sight. Even worse, they can't distinguish basic reptile (or animal!) species and think of all snake species as the venomous Vipera ammodytes, which lives in Croatia, and kill them regardless of the species (pers. Obs). On the other hand, they don't recognise venomous species and then get bitten when they disturb the snake (8). On certain social media sites there were also some recipes for herpetofauna dishes found (with pictures!) (pers. Obs.), but these posts are quickly removed by the authorities. Amphibians such as frogs are still being caught illegally for food to this day, thus reducing their populations (3).

In contrast to the above are the large scale threats. These (more direct) threats include urbanisation, intensive agriculture, roads and other significant changes in habitats which all lead to the disappearance and degradation of habitat quality (2). Roads are being built and renewed which fragments the habitat more and more each day. Animals can't cope with these changes and then end up as road kills. More and more tourism each year increases the commuting pressure on coastal Croatia, as well as inland and on islands (6). Intensive agriculture and industry has such a broad scale effect that it influences cave dwelling animals, such as the endemic amphibians Proteus anguinus (Olm). Large amounts of PCB chemicals have been found in the Slovenian population of P. anguinus (5), which are situated upstream from Croatia's rivers. Human waste can often be found in some cave habitats where the Olm lives (7), and other freshwater habitats. These habitats are one the most threatened habitats worldwide as well as in Croatia. Traditional water management, still practised today, includes embankment, cutting of meanders, and floodplain improvements, thus making habitats less and less usable for amphibians, especially endangered species like Bombina bombina, Triturus dobrigicus or Pelobates fuscus (3). Croatia is also no exception to the problem of invasive species. Herpestes auropunctatus or the small Indian mongoose (a type of carnivore related to civets and weasels) is an invasive mammal species in South Croatia (on Island Mljet for example). The mongoose was introduced to the island for it preys on venomous snakes like the nose-horned viper (Vipera ammodytes (Linnaeus, 1758)). Eradicating the venomous snake population, the mongoose has become a predator for local reptiles, amphibians and poultry making it a threat to the local fauna (1). Being a problem on Mljet, and some other island, the mongoose has arrived in inland Croatia, slowly spreading northwards. Invasive herpetofauna is also a problem in Croatia. The red eyed slider (Trachemys scripta) is more aggressive than local species. It chooses better habitats, basking spots and resources, thus making it a better competitor than the other turtle species. Significant drops in local fauna have been noted in places where the red eyes slider is found (4). One of the main reasons for their distribution is human activities. The slider is well known as a  pet species and is bought all over the world. However, people often abandon them in the local habitat when they no longer want them, making the slider a threat to local fauna.

The result of all these threats is that about one third of amphibian and reptile species in Croatia are threatened or near threatened with risk of extinction (2).

 Bombina variegata,
Testudo marginata
(Filotis Data Base for Greek Nature, 2018) 

Hundreds of endemic species are found on both the mainland and in the islands, highlighting the region as a hot spot of endemism. On the other hand, development of the tourist industry, a vital economic sector in Greece and especially in Greek Islands, with a dominant position in the Greek economy, has many negative consequences for wildlife (over-pumping of water, wetland
drainage, habitat degradation). In addition to this are over-grazing and intensive agriculture, which have largely altered the landscape, threatening reptiles and especially amphibians.(Pafilis, 2010) 
Pollution emissions from transport and electric power stations, over-exploitation of water resources, water pollution, degradation of
coastal zones, and increasing municipal and industrial waste are also omnipresent threats to herpetofauna.( Valavanidis & Vlachogianni , 2010) 
 

The threats affecting the island include human,natural,and ecological pressures.

1) Human pressures
a) Mining
 Evia Mines in the site Kotroni of Messapia in the municipality of Messapia are considered to be of world-class significance. Nickel deposits occur Larco Euboea Mines. Nickel is present there at a grade sufficient to have a strong impact on the profitability of an excavation project. 

Mining has a serious impact on the environment; as a result, herpetofauna habitat is degraded or destroyed. It causes contamination of soil, plants and groundwater, and an increasing amount of chromium, iron, nickel, manganese and cobalt in the soil from the Assopos to Thiva basin, followed by C. Evia and Ni-laterite deposits. (Economou, Megremi, Atsarou, Theodoratou, & Vasilatos, 2013),(Economou-Eliopoulos, Frei, & Megremi, 2016)
b) Construction of roads
and road appurtenances - the case of Agdines-Papades road in Northern Evia
Ecological conditions are not only affected by construction of roads
and road appurtenances but also by traffic and the increase in road density. Roads, road establishment, road maintenance, and road travel
have a broad variety of effects. Every aspect of roads has some interaction with the surrounding
environment, including road construction, operation, and maintenance. Many ecological effects of roads have
been identified, such as loss and fragmentation of habitat, pollution of air, water, and soil, mortality
of animals hit by passing vehicles, and acoustic interference caused by traffic noise. Increasing public demand for mitigation
and prevention of environmental impacts strongly requires development of evaluation tools for
civil engineers and ecologists to apply in the planning and construction of transport infrastructure.(Kollarou, Lantitsou, Athanasopoulou, & Kollaros, 2013)

2) Natural pressures as a result of human activity
a) Climate change impacts can alter normal weather conditions for each season. Climate change is
related to changes in the frequency
and intensity of extreme climate events, which may adversely affect vital economic sectors, such as agriculture and tourism, and have
substantial impacts on local communities. As a result, in the period from 2021 to 2050, it is predicted that there will be an additional twenty days of drought in Evia and other sub-regions in the northern part of the
country (Giannakopoulos, Kostopoulou, Varotsos, & Tziotziou, 2011). As a consequence, it
is estimated that the number of days with extreme fire risk
will increase by 10 to 15 days per year. (Giannakopoulo, Kostopoulou, Varotsos, & Plitharas, 2009), (Salvati, Ferrara, & Carlucci, 2014)  A recent example of the dangers posed by wildfires is from mid-August 2018 near the village of Kontodespoti, in which fire encircled the village and caused the evacuation of the 250 inhabitants. Also projected for Evia is an increase in autumn precipitation of 20%.(Giannakopoulo, Kostopoulou, Varotsos, & Plitharas, 2009), (Salvati, Ferrara, & Carlucci, 2014)
b) Invasive Alien species

    The American bullfrog, originally    introduced into Europe for consumption and as a pet, has escaped into the wild, colonising a wide range of habitats, including ponds, swamps, reservoirs, marshes and irrigation channels

So, in this work, many factors are presented and analysed by comparing our HerpetoAreas.

Beginning with Suriname, governments are indifferent to herpetofauna species and their protection. Habitat destruction is on the rise caused by activities such as deforestation, gold mining and road construction. Water pollution (from mercury usage) is another problem, making it unsuitable for amphibians. Also, illegal hunting and fishing, sand extraction, excessive harvesting of species and eggs as well as invasive species conclude the main threats to Suriname. 

Continuing with Attica and Crete (two prefectures of Greece), urbanisation (leading to elimination of natural areas) and littering appear as the main threats. Along with climate change, wildfires and illegal activities (poaching, arson) can be defined as the main problems, stemming from the indifference of the authorities in Attica. Cretan herpetofauna is also threatened from invasive species and overgrazing. Lastly, on the altar of tourism, sacrifices are made with easier access to vulnerable habitats or hotels disturbing C. caretta egg laying locations. These issues need to be dealt with if we wish the species in these prefectures to recover.
In Evia Island (located next to Attica) the dangers seem to be similar with the above mentioned
Habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation especially due to agricultural intensification and urbanisation and human persecution are the main threats  to reptiles. As for Amphibians the main threat to this group is the loss and degradation of suitable breeding habitat mainly due to agricultural activities through excessive water withdrawal, water pollution by agrochemicals and mining.

In Italy, things are about the same. Habitat degradation, fragmentation and loss due to urbanisation and agriculture are considered the primary threats. Invasive species as vectors of pathogens can bring local populations into decline. Along with climate change, the pet trade, and public aversion towards snakes and reptiles complete the list of threats in Italy. Concerning Tuscany (a region in central Italy), habitat loss, alteration, fragmentation and degradation are probably the main threats to herpetofauna. As transformation, pollution, and alteration of watercourses threatens amphibian populations, urbanisation has completely destroyed some habitats. Invasive species are also a threat to native herpetofauna. Finally, climate change, particularly global warming, along with infectious diseases are causing major problems.

In Belgium, corruption and lobbying are threatening herpetofauna and wildlife in general. Real estate speculation is considered the number one threat and despite public opposition and scientific research proving the value of some areas in conserving biodiversity, not many things have changed. 

As for Croatia, recent investigations showcase that bad management and lack of awareness (killing snakes on sight) are severely threatening herpetofauna. Illegal activities such as frog hunting for food are reducing their numbers. On the other hand, we have large scale threats. Urbanisation, intensive agriculture, roads and other significant changes in habitat structure all lead to loss and degradation of habitat quality. Reptiles and amphibians can't cope with these changes and most of them end up as roadkills. Water pollution and invasive species also threaten local species.

The similarities among the above HerpetoAreas are climate change (wildfires), invasive species, citizens’ apathy (indifference or ignorance), illegal activities (poaching, arson, hunting) and of course the main problem, the government’s apathy towards these problems (whether human-derived like urbanisation or natural events). Still, a few differences can be found, for example wildfires or the exotic pet trade are not considered serious threats to the herpetofauna in Belgium, while tourism is a problem mainly in Crete and wildfires are considered major threat in Evia.

To tackle the aforementioned issues, there are many options. Our vote is an important tool to bring about change in a political level because, as we see, governments have a crucial role in protecting the environment and its inhabitants. There is also a growing trend in the scientific community called “citizen science,” which attempts to educate citizens about various scientific concerns, such as conservation. Most citizens lack a scientific background and so believe they cannot contribute to dealing with these problems. Such programmes are essential as they encourage the public to be part of the change and do everything in their power to further knowledge through their own contributions. Lastly, the inclusion of environmental courses in school curricula with the aim of educating children and highlighting the significance of herpetofauna, will enable future generations to appreciate and protect these fascinating and enchanting, yet misunderstood, creatures. 

Regarding the pictures and online media supporting our facts, we recommend to anyone interested to have a look at the References Column, where all links and sources are provided.

(2) Jelić, Dušan & Kuljerić, Marija & Koren, Toni & Treer, Dag & Šalamon, Dragica & Lončar, Mila & Podnar, Martina & Janev Hutinec, Biljana & Bogdanović, Tomislav & Mekinić, Stjepan. Katja Jelić (2012). Red book of Amphibians and Reptiles of Croatia.

(3)Jovanović Glavaš, Olga & Jelić, Dušan. (2015). Conservation and Declines of Amphibians in Croatia

(4) Koren, T., Štih, A., Burić, I., Koller, K., Lauš, B., Zadravec, M., 2018. The current distribution of pond slider Trachemys scripta (Reptilia: Emydidae) in Croatia. Natura Sloveniae 20, 33–44.
 

(5) Pezdirc, M., Heath, E., Bizjak Mali, L., Bulog, B., 2011. PCB accumulation and tissue distribution in cave salamander (Proteus anguinus anguinus, Amphibia, Urodela) in the polluted karstic hinterland of the Krupa River, Slovenia. Chemosphere 84, 987–993. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2011.05.026

(6) Tóth, T., Boksai, D., Géczy, C., Mihály, Á., Takács, R., Sušić, G., Vinczek, J., Gál, J., Márosan, M., Farkas, B., Bokis, A., Heltai, M., 2017. Road-killed snakes on the island of Cres (Croatia). Biharean Biologist 11, 88–93.

 

(7)http://cistopodzemlje.info/hr/novosti/covjecja-ribica-pliva-u-otpadu/

(8)https://www.index.hr/magazin/clanak/zena-na-biokovu-pokusala-pomaziti-poskoka-pa-joj-hitno-morali-spasavati-zivot/2034576.aspx
(Croatian press article; translation: The woman tried to pet a Horned Viper on Biokovo and needed urgent medical assistance afterwards)

[2] Salvidio, S., Andreone, F., Angelini, J., Bassu, L., Bennati, R., Bernini, F., et al. (2011). Assessing the status of amphibian breeding sites in Italy: a national survey. Acta Herpetologica 6(1): 119-126. 

[3] Genovesi, P., Angelini, P., Bianchi, E., Dupré, E., Ercole, S., Giacanelli, V et al. (2014). Specie e habitat di interesse comunitario in Italia: distribuzione, stato di conservazione e trend. ISPRA, Serie Rapporti, 194, 2014. Available at: https://www.minambiente.it/sites/default/files/archivio/allegati/rete_natura_2000/rapporto_194_2014.pdf

[4] AA.VV. (2015) LIFE TIB Un corridoio ecologico tra Pianura Padana e Alpi. Available at: http://www.lifetib.it/DOWNLOAD/Libro2/TIB_VOLUME.pdf

[5] Heatwole, H., & Wilkinson, J. W. (2015). Amphibian Biology, Volume 11, Part 4: Status of Conservation and Decline of Amphibians: Eastern Hemisphere: Southern Europe & Turkey (Vol. 11). Pelagic Publishing Ltd.

[6] Denoel, M., Dzukic, G., & Kalezic, M. L. (2005). Effects of widespread fish introductions on paedomorphic newts in Europe. Conservation Biology, 19(1), 162-170.

[7] D’Amen, M., & Bombi, P. (2009). Global warming and biodiversity: Evidence of climate-linked amphibian declines in Italy. Biological Conservation, 142(12), 3060-3067.

[8] Bogliani G. (2008). Habitat risicolo e fauna, pp. 236-253 In: Ferrero A. (ed.), Il riso. Bayer Crop Science, Bologna. Available at: https://www.colturaecultura.it/content/habitat-risicolo-e-fauna#

[9] Giuliano D., Rossi P., Luoni F., Celada C., Bogliani G. (2017). Biodiversity Action Plan per le aree risicole dell’Italia Nord-occidentale. DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.16342.55361. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323969032_Biodiversity_Action_Plan_per_le_aree_risicole_dell'Italia_Nord-occidentale

[10] http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_MEMO-18-6247_en.htm

A major concern lies in the indifference of governments, which prefer short term profits over long term conservation of herpetofauna. Differences can be found among countries: Suriname’s herpetofauna is mainly threatened by deforestation, gold mining and mercury pollution of water, Attica, Evia and Crete’s by urbanisation and tourism, Italy by habitat fragmentation and alteration, Belgium by the impact of real estate speculation in protected areas, Croatia by bad management and lack of awareness. One possible solution is greater citizen involvement, of potentially major importance in herpeto conservation. Therefore, it is fundamental to involve the public in citizen science and educational projects, to raise awareness on the importance of these animals and on threats menacing their survival, in order to motivate the public to demand green measures, proper policy and legislation from their governments and support and participation in conservation actions.

Convention on Biological Diversity,Greece. (n.d.). https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/gr/gr-nr-05-en.pdf. Retrieved from https://www.cbd.int.

Filotis Data Base for Greek Nature. (2018). https://filotis.itia.ntua.gr/biotopes/c/GR2420001/. Retrieved from https://filotis.itia.ntua.gr.

 G i a n n a k o p o u l o , C., K o s t o p o u l o u , E., V a r o t s o s , K., & P l i t h a r a s , A. (2009, 09). Climate change impacts in Greece in the near future. Retrieved from www.wwf.com.

Kollarou, V., Lantitsou, K., Athanasopoulou, A., & Kollaros, G. (2013, June 24-28). Impact of roads on ecological conditions. Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Environmental Management, Engineering, Planning and Economics (CEMEPE) and SECOTOX Conference. Mykonos island.

Valavanidis , A., & Vlachogianni , T. (2010). The Most Important and Urgent Environmental Problems in Greece in the Last Decade (2000-2010).

Economou, M., Megremi, I., Atsarou, C., Theodoratou , C., & Vasilatos , C. (2013 , March 20). Spatial Evolution of the Chromium Contamination in Soils from the Assopos to Thiva Basin and C. Evia (Greece) and Potential Source(s): Anthropogenic versus Natural Processes. Spatial Evolution of the Chromium Contamination in Soils from the Assopos to Thiva Basin and C. Evia (Greece) and Potential Source(s): Anthropogenic versus Natural Processes, pp. 140-158.

Economou-Eliopoulos, M., Frei, R., & Megremi, I. (2016). Potential leaching of Cr(VI) from Laterite mines and residues of metallurgical products (red mug and slag)An integrated approach. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 40-49.

European Commision. (2017). Invasive Alien Species of Union Concern. European Union.

Giannakopoulos, C., Kostopoulou , E., Varotsos , K. V., & Tziotziou , K. (2011, April). An integrated assessment of climate change impacts for Greece in the near future. Reg Environ Change.

Pafilis, P. (2010). A brief history of Greek herpetology. Bonn zoological Bulletin, pp. pp. 329–34.

Salvati, L., Ferrara, A., & Carlucci, M. (2014). Understanding the Spatial Distribution of Forest Fires in a Growing Urban Region: Socioeconomic Indicators Tell You More. http://www.scirp.org/journal/me, 211-218 .

 

The fire started near the village of Limni (lake) in the surrounding pine forests and burned through some 3,000 hectares on land for three days, while strong winds in the region made it difficult for the firefighting efforts, as over 140 firefighters, 58 vehicles, 74 land units, 30 soldiers, 27 water tanks and 7 bulldozers along with firefighting brigades from the whole region were needed to extinguish the blaze.