First generation (1934-1954) computers worked with vacuum tunes as the main hardware. It's Design was bulky, slow and hard to maintain since it operated on mechanical switches powered by electromagnetic. They used filaments to turn on or off and could burn out very easily. Only large organizations such as the US Military could afford such bulky devices. SecondGenerationcomputers(1954-1959) involved use of transistors which were essentially switches that turned on or off based on potential difference between junctions. This ability was utilised in generating logic for computers. They reduced a lot in size and grew more efficient. A breakthrough occurred in 1959 in terms of computer hardware when Jack Kilby contributed to development of Third Generation Computers (1959-1971) by assembling multiple transistors and connecting them on a single silicon chip. Over time transistor size was further reduced and the hardware became to be known as an "Integrated Circuit". Various computing electronics companies like Intel, IBM and Fairchild researched on its design and developed transistors which could practically be "written" on silicon wafers. They could be made by using thinner lines of semiconducting materials. This lead to formation of Microprocessors (1971 - present) which could implement logic and carry complex calculations equivalent to millions of transistors per second. This could be possible since all necessary components were embedded within the Silicon chip. It reduced power consumption, increased power efficiency and made computers compact the level they are today. Over the years they have continued to improve and shrunk in size due to greater no.of transistors due to shrinking line size on chips from few millimeters to microns. Present day microprocessors have greater clockspeed, can handle, multiple tasks at once, higher cache size and are therefore much faster.

SUMMARY

Decisive Aspects In the Evolution of Microprocessors.

The increasing demand for higher processor performance initiated series of evolutionary events which were aimed at increasing clock frequencies and dynamic evolution of the micro-architecture. In this paper,the main focus is on the latter, highlighting major micro-architectural advancements that were introduced to more effectively utilize the Instruction Level Parallelism (ILP) in commercial performance-oriented Micro-processors. 

Since the birth of microprocessors in 1971, this industry has successfully maintained a rapid increase in performance. Recently,this field has managed to witness developments in two major dimensions. Those include utilizing instruction level parallelism (ILP) more aggressively by means of more powerful optimizing compilers, and innovative techniques and also to make use of parallelism at a higher-than-instruction (i.e., thread) level.

Next, it also explains the introduction and evolution of utilizing Issue parallelism which is also known as the superscalar instruction issue. It also elucidates on the overall the implications of introducing the Superscalar Issue in which it throws light on the Memory and Branch handling Bottlenecks.

After First Generation Superscalars, Second Generation Superscalars came. They are also explained fully wherein the techniques used to remove the Issue Bottlenecks are explained. Execution model of Second Generation Superscalars is also provided for study. After this, the limits of utilization of Issue Parallelisms are listed.

Apart from Temporal and Issue Parallelism one more kind of parallelism exist namely Instrainstruction Parallelism. Its introduction and evolution of utilizations are fully explained wherein one learns about the Main approaches of its introduction, Dual Operation Instruction, SIMD Instructions and also VLIW Approach.

This journal also talks about the main road of the Micro-architectural Evolution which is marked by an increasing utilization of available ILP.

Lastly the paper concludes with the idea that as the main dimensions of parallelism were more or less constrained to the instruction level, the processor evolution will necessarily continue by utilizing parallelism at a higher than instruction level i.e., at the thread level as well. Therefore, the next cycle of evolution will be dedicated to the thread level and to the auxiliary techniques needed to utilize the full potential of multi-threading.

-SARTHAK JAIN

Bottlenecks can also affect the network performance by hindering the transmission process of information across the networks.

2)Microprocessor Architecture Program ;Ramesh S (publisher:Prentice Hall 1988)

4)History of Microprocessors :Beatrice Inc. (Journal;Michael R Betker ,John S Fernando,Shaun P Whalen

5)Wiley online library :History of Microprocessors

onlinelibrarywiley. com

6)http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iSKGVncs_ZQ

7) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4qP0ox5F-6I

- It contains millions of Optical Cavaties

- Each consisting of an array of holes etched into a shape of diamond

"In about 10 years or so, we will see the collapse of Moore's Law," Kaku said. "In fact, we already see a slowing down of Moore's Law. Computing power simply cannot maintain its rapid exponential rise using standard silicon technology."

The prediction was made by Intel co-founder Gordon Moore in 1965. It holds that the number of transistors on a chip doubles about every two years and can be done inexpensively.

Kaku, like so many scientists before him, said recently the two main problems that will derail Moore's Law are heat and leakage. "That's the reason why the age of silicon will eventually come to a close," he said.

This is far from the first prediction that Moore's Law is failing.

Ans- There are three major implications of increasing the clock frequency:

1) It enhances the Bus subsystem-Higher clock frequencies and more effective microarchitectures call for more bandwidth in the buses connecting the processor to the memory.

2)It enhances the memory subsystem-Higher clock frequencies call for higher memory bandwidth and reduced load-use latencies (the time needed to use requested memory data).

3)It also enhances the I/O subsystem.

Q2. Which microprocessors find their intensive use in the defense equipments and missiles?

Ans- Some of the commonly used are:

1) Nvidia Tesla GPUs

2) MotionDSP's Ikena ISR

3)Kontron Core2Duo.

4)Xilinx Zynq 7000 Series.

As discussed in the journal Microprocessors — single -chip computers—are the building blocks of the information world. Their performance has grown 1,000-fold over the past 20 years but in the next two decades, diminishing transistor-speed scaling and practical energy limits create new challenges for continued performance scaling .

Gone are the days when there were huge computers working on vacuum tubes giving a very low speed than today in spite of using a hell lot of energy. They were the fastest of their time but they don't stand a chance when compared to modern machines .Modern day computers are getting smaller ,faster and more reliable (power efficiency).

So what led this change ?

It all started with the discovery of semiconductors transistors in 1960 s which replaced the vacuum tubes.Since then growth in this sector was exponential.First the invention of Integrated circuit (IC) which doubed our capability to put transistors on a single chip in every 2 years(there was even a law derived on it ) .

The invention of Integrated circuit have seen 4 generations.Early 60 s saw the low fabrication Small Scale Integration, an IC only contained about 10-12 transistors and in late 60 s Medium Scale Integration rolled out and transistors number increased to 100.

By this time investors had realized the potentials of integrated circuit and there was no shortage of funds and in early 70 s large scale integration came up and number was increased to 1000.

By mid eighties, the transistor count on a single chip had already exceeded 1000 and hence came the age of Very Large Scale Integration or VLSI .VLSI reduced the size of IC circuits ,increased the operating speed, decreased the effective cost and power consumption.

VlSI revolutionised the IC's . It provided the ic designers to add CPU, ROM,Ram and other glue logic on IC.

Nowadays VLSI chips are widely used in engineering like computer electronics ,automobiles,communication networks and many more.

But where does it all lead us to? 

The future of VLSI seems to change every little moment as we read this.

Also the best use of microprocessor is in medical science.

Connection between the medical science and microprocessor can be seen everywhere for example it is used in MRI Scanning CT scanning etc .

1) Three application areas, in particular, that are growing the fastest with respect to the Defense Industry are Image processing, Signal Processing, and Data Analytics.

2) MotionDSP's Ikena ISR product uses algorithms to enhance video with cleaner detail, increased resolution, and reduced noise, making it well suited for real-time streaming of high-quality video from unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) sensors. By harnessing Nvidia Tesla GPUs, the software can process 30 frames per second, with less than 300 milliseconds latency. Improved image quality and streaming performance enable the Department of Defense to access more accurate and actionable information quickly

3) Maintaining the integrity of the data, through the use of technology, such as error-correcting code (ECC) or processor lockstep operation, throughout the processing subsystem is very important in avionics and military communication

4) Just as microprocessors benefit from the power inherent in GPUs, they are likewise aided in aerospace and defense applications by robust field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs).Xilinx integrated processors and embedded processing solutions are used in missiles and ammunitions, for target tracking; military communications, for black-side modem operations and red-side key management and user interface; and electronic warfare/intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (EW/ISR), such as radar algorithm processing.This is extensively used tin airborne and land-based combat vehicles like drones and tanks.

2." The computer society",Time,feb.20,1978

3. J.B. Peatman , Microcomputer-Based Design.New York.McGraw - Hilll,1977

4. G.Moore,"VLSI:Some Fundamental Challenges," IEEE Spectrum,Apr. 1979

5.Electronics,May 10,p.90,1979

Ans- Compared to BJTs, MOSFETs can be made very small as they occupy very small silicon area on IC chip and are relatively simple in terms of manufacturing. Moreover digital and memory ICs can be implemented with circuits that use only MOSFETs i.e. no resistors, diodes, etc.

2. What does Ultra Large-Scale Integration (ULSI)mean?

Ans- Ultra large-scale integration (ULSI) is the process of integrating or embedding millions of transistors on a single silicon semiconductor microchip. ULSI technology was conceived during the late 1980s when superior computer processor microchips, specifically for the Intel 8086 series, were under development. ULSI is a successor to large-scale integration (LSI) and very large-scale integration (VLSI) technologies but is in the same category as VLSI.

3. What are the main industrial applications of the VLSI technology ?

Ans- The applications include creating microprocessor chips for the computers wherein a large no. of small IC's can be integrated into a single chip.

SSI-Small scale integration

IC-Integrated circuit

For these applications, designers often select a microprocessor with a rich instruction set and proven track record, ensuring a reliable operation and maximizing the investment in code generation can be leveraged in the next generation medical products. The increasing use of microprocessors in external medical devices poses special analytical challenges. Programmable pacemakers, long-term portable ECG recorders, and ECG arrhythmia detection monitors, for example, contain cardiac arrhythmia detection software. Examination of such devices is difficult, especially because failures are rare and transient.

Machinery such as blood sugar detector , CT scan, MRI Scanning, etc

2) David A. Patterson : Microprocessor in 2020 ( Journal Sept 1995)

3) https://youtu.be/FPtDc2qvXeQ

2)An article from Britannica on ICs.

http://www.britannica.com/technology/integrated-circuit

3)A talk by Dr. William Haley 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l1ImS3gbg08&feature=youtu.be

4)MIT Lectures on Electronics Engineering and Computer Science from ocw.mit.edu

5)video on Impact of ICs by BBC

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LNVcj5A6yDE

6) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MckeAmnDeTk&feature=youtu.be

7) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qcta3RStYSM&feature=youtu.be

8)A Reference Material on Parallelism in Microprocessors by Dottorato di Ricerca in Informatica,Universita Di Torino,Italy

)Product Insights from www.intel.in, www.nvidia.com ,www.amd.com .

4) The aviation system relies heavily on microprocessors from calculating weather conditions to controlling the complex functions of an airplane.

1)ILP- Instruction Level Parallelism

2)IPII-Instruction per Issue Interval

3)CPII-Cycles per Issue Interval

4)IPC-Instructions Per Cycle

5)SIMD-Single Instruction Multiple Data

6)VLIW-Very Long

2)Algorithm;Procedure on Formula for solving problem .

3). Cache Memory:smaller,faster memory to reduce avg. time to access data.

4)PLD: Programmable logic Device ,used to build digital circuits.

Microprocessors ,in the present age, have transformed into an indispensable part of the Defense Industry and its applications are growing in numbers giving a whole new dimension to the Military Combats.

Suggestion:

The Artificial intelligence ,which is nothing but using several algorithms on this piece of silicon, should be the present age's primary area of concern whose magnificence and accuracy can be more effectively harnessed by the different Defense Institutions of the world.

design and its evolution

Since the birth of microprocessors in 1971, the IC industry has successfully maintained an incredibly rapid increase in performance. Recently this has given rise to developments in two main directions: 1) to utilize instruction level parallelism (ILP) more aggressively by means of more powerful optimizing compilers, and innovative techniques. 2) to also make use of parallelism at a higher-than-instruction (i.e., thread) level. Performance may be increased basically either by raising the clock frequency or by increasing the efficiency of the microarchitecture. The major outbreak in micro-architectural developments was the introduction of superscalar processorsin our computers which is aCPUthat implements a form ofparallelismcalledinstruction-level parallelismwithin a single processor. It therefore allows faster CPUthroughput(the number of instructions that can be executed in a unit of time) than would otherwise be possible at a givenclock rate. The types of parallelism that are used are namely Temporal, Issue and Instrainstruction level Parallelism which are named in a chronological sequence.

Microprocessor are the indispensable part of our day to day machines we come across.Be it an elevator,gasoline pump,computer server,digital kiosk,surveillance systems etc. The transport industry also heavily depends on the information provided by the microprocessor

Mediical Field

Many Medical Devices use microprocessors such as insulin pump,diabetes checker.The microprocessors perform various function such as bio sensors,storing measurements, and analysing results.Microprocessors , in present age have transformed into a major part of the defense industry and its application are growing with time giving a whole new dimension to Military Combat.

Microprocessors are heavily used in Communication industry for various puposes like sattelite communication