So, based on my understanding, here

1.       Organizational behavior is a relatively young field of inquiry that studies what people think, feel, and do in and around organizations.

2.       Organizations are groups of people who work interdependently toward some purpose.

Overall, we have discussed on how the people in an organizations act towards work, other employees and third parties .

There are four perspectives of organizational behaviour.
1. OPEN SYSTEMS
2. HIGH-PERFORMANCE WORK PRACTICES
3. ORAGNIZATIONAL LEARNING
4. STAKEHOLDER

This topic are discussing about the emotions, attitudes and how to handle stress in the workplace.

- Emotion is a psychological, behavioural, and physiological episode that creates a state of readiness.

- Most emotions occur without our awareness.

1.       High activation, negative emotions : fearful, jittery

2.       High activation, positive emotions : enthusiastic , elated

3.       Low activation, negative emotions : bored, tired

4.       Low activation, positive emotions : relaxed, calm

 

Traditional model: How attitudes influence behaviour
- Beliefs – learned from experience
- feelings – people with same beliefs might have different feelings
- behavioural intentions – people might have same feeling but different behavioral intentions
- behaviour – influenced by behavioral intentions but depends on ability or situations.

Job satisfaction
A person's evaluation of his or her job and work context or an appraisal of the perceived job characteristics, work environment, and emotional experience at work. 

E- Exit : Leaving the situation or quit the job

V- Voice : Change the situations by voicing out

L-Loyalty : Patiently waiting for the situation to improve

N-Neglect : Reducing work effort or increasing absenteeism

Job satisfaction is important because our employee’s happiness will affect the company’s productivity.

Workplace stress is happen by the environmental conditions that place a physical or emotional demand on the person. Some common workplace stressor are harassment an incivility, work overload and low task control.

How to overcome stress?
 - Remove the stressor by having work-life balanced
 - take a vacation or rest breaks
 - make a positive self-concept, humour
 - having a healthy lifestyle, fitness and wellness

MARS MODEL

MARS model of individual behavior is a model that seeks to elaborate individual behavior as a result of internal and external factors or influences combined together. The name itself is an acronym for individual Motivation, Abilities, Role Perception and Situational Factors.

M-Motivation is an internal forces that affect a person’s voluntary choice of behaviour.
                 - Direction
                 - Intensity
                 - Persistence

A-Ability is an aptitudes and learned capabilities required to successfully complete a task.
 There are 3 steps in job matching;
 1. Selecting
 2. Developing
 3. Redesigning 

R-Role Perceptions means we know and understand the job duties that expected for us.

S-Situational factors is the environmental conditions beyond the individual’s short-term control that constrain or facilitate behaviour.

1.       Task performance

2.       Organizational citizenship

3.       Counterproductive work behaviours

4.       Joining and staying with the organization

5.       Maintaining work attendance

What is personality?
Relatively enduring pattern of thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that characterize a person, along with the psychological processes behind those characteristics.

1. Nature personality- its personality is already in them. For example, twins has a similar personality, based on Minsotta tudies.

2. Nurture personality – Socialization, can be learned.

Five Factors Personality Model (CANOE)

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
 - Measures Jungian types

Openness to change – motivation to pursue innovative ways

Conservation -- motivation to preserve the status quo

Self-enhancement -- motivated by self-interest

Self-transcendence -- motivation to promote welfare

Factors that influence perceptions:

It is about whether the individual’s behaviour is caused by internally or externally.
 Internally – caused by the person itself.
 Externally – caused by the outside environment

Determination depends on three factors:

1. Distinctiveness

2. Consensus
3. Consistency 

1.       Define the problem

2.       Identify the decision criteria

3.       Allocate weights to the criteria

4.       Develop the alternatives

5.       Evaluate the alternatives

6.       Select the best alternatives

INTUITION
Intuitive decision making occurs outside conscious thought; it relies on holistic associations, or links between disparate pieces of information, is fast, and is affectively charged, meaning it usually engages the emotions.

1.       Overconfidence Bias: 
 individuals whose intellectual and interpersonal abilities are weakest are most likely to overestimate their performance and ability. 

2.       Anchoring Bias: 
 fixating on initial information as a starting point and failing to adequately adjust for subsequent information.

3.       Confirmation Bias: 
 type of selective perception. Seek out information that reaffirms past choices, and discount information that contradicts past judgments.

4.       Availability Bias: 
 tendency for people to base judgments on information that is readily available.

5.       Escalation of Commitment: 
 staying with a decision even when there is clear evidence that it’s wrong. Likely to occur when individuals view themselves as responsible for the outcome.

6.       Randomness Error: 
 our tendency to believe we can predict the outcome of random events. Decision making becomes impaired when we try to create meaning out of random events.

7.       Risk Aversion: 
 the tendency to prefer a sure thing instead of a risky outcome. 
 - Ambitious people with power that can be taken away appear to be especially risk averse.
 - People will more likely engage in risk-seeking behavior for negative outcomes, and risk-averse behavior for positive outcomes, when under stress.

8.       Hindsight Bias: 
 the tendency to believe falsely that one has accurately predicted the outcome of an event, after that outcome is actually known.

This topic is about motivation of the employees that will lead to the excellent organizations and how to make the employees satisfied with their work.

Motivation is a something that lead someone willing to do any work becomes more effectives and enjoys in the same time. Besides, motivated employees are willing to exert a particular level of effort (intensity), for a certain amount of time (persistence) then towards a particular goal (direction).

Engagement with the employees also important in order to make sure the employee will high level of focus and self-efficiacy

Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Theory
There is 5 main catogories in the hierarchy and 2 added categories.
The lowest level means it’s the strongest need. When satisfied, next higher need becomes primary motivator. Main problem of this hierarchy is it’s unique to each person, not universal.

Learned Need Theory
Needs are amplified or suppressed through self-concept, social norms, and past experience

Three learned need
 1- Need for achievement 
 - Want to accomplish reasonably challenging goals
 - Desire clear feedback, moderate risk tasks

2- Need for affiliation 
 - Seek approval from others, conform to others’ wishes, avoid conflict
 - Effective decision makers have low need for affiliation

3- Need for power
 - Desire to control one’s environment
 - Personalized versus socialized power

Four Drive Theory
Four drives determine which emotions are automatically tagged to incoming sensory information. Emotions are usually unconscious, but become conscious experiences when sufficiently strong or conflict with each other. Then the mental will set based on social norms, personal values and experience then transform the emotions towards goal-directed.

1.       Drive to acquire: seek, acquire, control, retain objects or experiences

2.       Drive to bond: form social relationships and develop mutual caring commitments with others

3.       Drive to comprehend: satisfy our curiosity, know and understand ourselves and the environment

4.       Drive to defend: protect ourselves physically and socially

Expectancy Theory
Increasing E-to-P Expectancies 

·         Hire, train, and match people to job requirements 

·         Provide behavioral modeling and coaching 

 

Increasing P-to-O Expectancies 

·         Measure performance accurately 

·         Explain how rewards are caused by past performance 
 

Increasing Outcome Valences 

·         Ensure that rewards are valued 

·         Individualize rewards 

 A-B-Cs of Behavior Modification

- Firstly, the attitude is what happens before the behaviour which is the attitudes of the person.
 - Then, it will lead the person towards act of behaviour.
 - After that, people can make decisions by focusing on their attitude behaviour and most of all, the consequences.
 - They can start by clarifying the consequences – the desired results – they want to achieve.
 - They can then clarify the attitude and behaviour they need to demonstrate to get the desired consequences.

1.       Positive reinforcement – when consequence is introduced, the behavior is increased/maintained 

2.       Punishment – when introduced, the frequency or probability of the behavior decreases 

3.       Negative reinforcement –when this consequence is removed, behavior is increased/maintained

4.       Extinction –behavior decreases when no consequence occurs 

 

The social-cognitive theory is a theoretical perspective in which learning by observing others is the focus of study. There are few assumptions of social cognitive theory.

Firstly, one is that people can learn by observing others. Learners can acquire new behaviors and knowledge by simply observing a model. A model is a person who demonstrates behavior for someone else.

Secondly, learning is an internal process that may or may not lead to a behavior. Learning may not occur immediately. The observer could process the new behavior, but his/her learning may not be affected until a later point or never at all.

Thirdly, there's also an assumption of goal-directed behavior. They are motivated to accomplish those goals.

Next, another assumption of the social-cognitive theory is behavior eventually becomes self-regulated. Social-cognitivists, unlike behaviorists, believe that people eventually begin to regulate their own learning and behavior.

The final assumption deals with reinforcement and punishment. Social-cognitivists believe reinforcement and punishment have indirect (rather than direct) effects on learning and behavior. People form expectations about the likely consequences of future responses based on how current responses are reinforced or punished. People's expectations are also influenced by the observation of the consequences that follow other people's behavior.

Goal setting (SMARTER)

Specific – What, how, where, when, and with whom the task needs to be accomplished

Measurable – how much, how well, at what cost

Achievable – challenging, yet accepted (E-to-P)

Relevant – within employee’s control

Time-framed – due date and when assessed

Exciting – employee commitment, not just compliance

Reviewed – feedback and recognition on goal progress and accomplishment

Social identity theory proposes that a person’s sense of who they are depends on the groups to which they belong. People have emotional reactions to the failure or success of their group because their self-esteem gets tied into the performance of the group. Social identities help us understand who we are and where we fit in with people.

An ingroup is a social group to which a person psychologically identifies as being a member. By contrast, an outgroup is a social group with which an individual does not identify.

Role is a set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit.
 1. Role perceptions: one’s perception of how to act in a given situation.
2.  Role expectations: how others believe one should act in a given situation.
3.  Role conflict: situation in which an individual faces divergent role expectations.

Norms is a standard or pattern, especially of social behavior, that is typical or expected of a group. It’s can be acceptable within that group.

Status: a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others.

Status characteristics theory: status is derived from one of three sources;

·         The power a person wields over others. 

·         A person’s ability to contribute to a group’s goals. 

·         An individual’s personal characteristics. 

 

Strengths of group decision making: 

·         More complete information and knowledge 

·         Increased diversity of views 

·         Increased acceptance of solutions 

 

Weaknesses of group decision making: 

·         Time consuming 

·         Conformity pressures 

·         Dominance of a few members 

·         Ambiguous responsibility 

Effective teams have adequate resources, effective leadership, a climate of trust, and a performance evaluation and reward system that reflects team contributions. These teams have individuals with technical expertise, and the right traits and skills. Effective teams have members who believe in the team’s capabilities, are committed to a common plan and purpose, and have an accurate shared mental model of what is to be accomplished.

Power is the ability of a person, team, or organization to influence others.

There are five sources of power.
 1. Legitimate power - is known as positional power. It's derived from the position a person holds in an organization's hierarchy.

 2. Reward power - arises from the ability of a person to influence the allocation of incentives in an organization. These incentives include salary increments, positive appraisals and promotions. In an organization, people who hold reward power tend to influence the actions of other employees.

 3. Coercive power - is derived from a person's ability to influence others via threats, punishments or sanctions. Coercive power is, therefore, a person's ability to punish, fire or reprimand another employee. Coercive power helps control the behavior of employees by ensuring that they adhere to the organization's policies and norms.

 4. Expert power - is derived from possessing knowledge or expertise in a particular area. Such people are highly valued by organizations for their problem solving skills. People who have expert power perform critical tasks and are therefore seems important.
 5. Referent power - Referent power is derived from the interpersonal relationships that a person cultivates with other people in the organization. People possess reference power when others respect and like them. Referent power arises from charisma, as the charismatic person influences others via the admiration, respect and trust others have for her.

Types of influence:

1.       Silent authority – Following request without any obvious influence.

2.       Assertiveness - Reminding, confronting, checking, threatening

3.       Information control - Manipulating others’ access to information

4.       Coalition formation - Group forms to gain more power than individuals alone

5.       Upward appeal - Cooperate or perceived with higher status person

6.       Persuasion - Depends on persuader, message content, message medium, audience

7.       Impression management -  self-presentation

8.       Exchange - Promising or reminding of past benefits in exchange for compliance

Conflict in the workplace sometimes gives a positive and negative feedback towards the company. When the conflict occurs, it will help the whole organization start to generate more ideas. Negatively, it also can increase the work stress, more job dissatisfaction and turnover. So, it depends on how the leader or the organization handle and make the best solutions in handling the conflict. Hence, it’s also helping the company to become more productive.

1. Task (constructive) conflict – focus more on the issues, but still respect others point of view

2. Relationship conflict – focus more on someone’s characteristics, not the issues. Usually, it comes with the bad emotions.

How to minimize conflict?
 1. Emotional intelligence
 2. Cohesive team
 3. Supportive team norms

1.       Problem solving 

Best when: 

·         Interests are not perfectly contrast

·         Everyone being openness 

·         Issues are difficult 

Problem: other party may use information to its advantage

 

2.       Forcing 

Best when: 

·         you have a deep persuasion about your position 

·         quick resolution required other party would take advantage of cooperation 

Problems: relationship conflict, long-term relations 

 

3.       Avoiding 

Best when: 

·         conflict is about relationship conflict 

·         conflict resolution cost is higher than benefits 

Problems: doesn’t resolve conflict; causes frustration 

 

4.       Yielding 

Best when: 

·         other party has much more power 

·         issue is much less important to you than other party

Problems: increases other’s expectations; imperfect solution 

5.       Compromising

Best when:

·         Parties have equal power

·         Quick solution is required

·         Parties lack trust/openness

Problem: Sub-optimal solution where mutual gains are possible

This topic is about the division of labor and patterns of coordination, communication, workflow, and formal power that direct organizational activities. This topic is related with the previous topics such as work teams, job design and power.

Division of labor means specialization or separate jobs for different people. This is to make sure the works becomes efficiency.

Coordination of work is limited because the limited division of labor. Besides, coordinating work might be costly.

Three coordinating mechanisms:

1.       informal communication

2.       formal hierarchy

3.       standardization

Coordination through Informal Communication
Informal communication coordinates work in all firms. It’s also vital in nonroutine and uncertain situations. It is easiest in small firms but technology extends its use in large firms.

1. Span of control - Number of people directly reporting to the next level.

2. Centralize - Formal decision making authority is held by a few people, usually at the top such as upper manager or middle.

3. Formalization - Standardizing behavior through rules, procedures or training.

1. Functional Organizational Structure
 - Organizes employees around specific knowledge or other resources such as finance, marketing

2. Divisional Structure
 - Organizes employees around outputs such as electronic parts, clients such as patients, or geographic areas such as target for local consumers.

3. Team-based Structure
 - Self-directed work teams organized around work processes. Team based more flexible and responsive. It’s also lower the admin costs.

4. Product Matrix Structure
 - Every country or places focus on one category product which is becomes product leader.

5. Project-based Matrix Structure
 - Employees are temporarily assigned to a specific project team and have a permanent functional unit.