• His leadership is known as old order (Orde Lama).

• He declares the Independence of Indonesia as a country on August 17, 1945. Since, the Proclamation, Indonesia is a free nation.

• In his presidency, he creates guided democracy because the attempt to implement parliamentary democracy is failed (1959). He promotes the concept nasakom for the Indonesian politics that focus on nationalism, religion, and communism.

• In his leadership, there are many parties and cabinets in the government.

• Indonesia chooses to be a non-aligned movement (NAM), or in other words positioning Indonesia between the Western and Eastern blocs.

• In 1965, PKI, a communist party (Partai Komunis Indonesia) kills and kidnaps army shoulders, which makes a big movement in the politic of Indonesia with Soeharto involvement.

• In 1967, in the G30S/PKI coup, he steps down from his presidency.

Economic:

• Poor management on the Dutch-owned companies, which makes the economy is very down.

• there is a hyperinflation happened due to excessive government spending.

• Agricultural and industrial production increase since the shift of the leaders.

• Government focused on large national projects such as building GBK (Gelora Bung Karno) in 1960 that neglecting the people who suffer from poverty.

Social:

• the Nasakom ideology unify the diversity.

• The 1965 coup attempt caused many people died.

• His ideas that emphasize Pancasila value is separated to the citizens.

  
  

  References:

  Ph. D., H., J. D., U. of W. S. of L., & B. A., H. (2019, August 20). Biography of Sukarno, Indonesia’s First President. ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/sukarno-indonesias-first-president-195521

  
  

  Orde Lama Soekarno - Sejarah Politik Sukarno | Indonesia Investments. (n.d.). Www.indonesia-Investments.com. https://www.indonesia-investments.com/id/budaya/politik/orde-lama-soekarno/item179

  
  

  
  

  
  

• His leadership is known as New order Regimes. He focuses on political stability.

• His action to maintain political stability is by oppressing the oppositions. He banned the Communist Party and limit the freedom of the political activists.

• He Implemented the dual function or in Bahasa Indonesia we call it Dwifungsi. Dual function means that the military has power in the government, because before he was a general in the military.

• In election, there is no freedom of voice to the citizens since the election is controlled by a party called Golkar.

• There are more corruption happen among the leaderships.

Economic:

• He promoted industrialization and economic liberalization, reducing poverty.

• During his reign The Asian Financial Crisis (1997) led to currency collapse and economic downfall in this country.

• corruption and nepotism are everywhere.

Social:

• There is no freedom in media and speech.

• Human rights abuses in many places.

• Controlling society discourse.

• In 1997 economic crisis led to protests, riots, and ethnic violence, particularly against Chinese-Indonesians.

The end of his leadership:

• in May 1998 after mass protests and economic collapse.

References:

The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. (2019). Suharto | president of Indonesia. In Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Suharto

Lindsey, T. (2021b). Soeharto: the giant of modern Indonesia who left a legacy of violence and corruption. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/soeharto-the-giant-of-modern-indonesia-who-left-a-legacy-of-violence-and-corruption-164411

• Introduced democratic reforms and new political party laws.

• In 1999, he let East Timor to independence.

• Released political prisoners and lifted restrictions on freedom of speech.

Economic:

• Stabilized the country currency (Rupiah) after the Asian Financial Crisis.

• Encouraged foreign investment.

• GDP started recovering, but unemployment remained high.

• The country experienced 13.1% negative growth in 1998 and only a year later the economy grew positively by 0.8%, a sign that the crisis was coming to an end (Maruti & Nazara, 2019).

Social:

• Improved relations with Western countries.

• Allowed Chinese culture and language to be openly practiced again.

References:

President Habibie on Indonesian Democracy. (2024). Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. https://carnegieendowment.org/events/2014/06/president-habibie-on-indonesian-democracy?lang=en

Maruti, R., & Nazara, S. (2019, September 20). Habibie’s lasting legacy for Indonesia. Www.lowyinstitute.org. https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/habibie-s-lasting-legacy-indonesia

B.J Habibie | Facts, Biography, & Presidency. (n.d.). Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/B-J-Habibie

• He was the first president who was elected democratically through the MPR.

• He tried to minimalize military involvement and influence in the government.

• In his leadership there is conflicts with parliament that leading to an unstable government.

• Supported regional autonomy.

Economic:

• Continued economic stabilization but failed to attract investors.

• Struggled to reduce corruption.

• The economy grew at a slow pace.

Social:

• Supported religious tolerance and minority rights (e.g., Chinese-Indonesians).

• Lifted restrictions on press freedom.

  
  

Reference:

Abdurrahman Wahid | president of Indonesia. (n.d.). Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Abdurrahman-Wahid

• First female president of Indonesia.

• was criticized for weak leadership: corruption.

• Failed to resolve the separatist movement in Aceh and Papua.

Economic:

• Stabilized economy post-Asian crisis.

• Inflation remained under control

• Unemployment was still high.

Social:

• Women’s political participation increased.

• Terrorist attacks that impactful for national security.

References:

Megawati Sukarnoputri | Biography & Facts. (n.d.). Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Megawati-Sukarnoputri

The Megawati Presidency | Refworld. (2023). Refworld. https://www.refworld.org/reference/countryrep/icg/2001/en/32251

• Strengthened democracy concept.

• High level of corruption problem.

• Improved Indonesia reputation in international setting.

Economic:

• Established cash transfer programs in order to reduce poverty.

• Expanded foreign investment.

• Achieved stable economic growth.

Social:

• Intolerance of religions and minor groups.

• Supported and handled tsunami disaster in Aceh and other disaster in other areas.

• Expanded education and healthcare programs to several areas in Indonesia.

References:

Pemerintahan Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono - SBY | Indonesia Investments. (n.d.). Www.indonesia-Investments.com. https://www.indonesia-investments.com/id/culture/politics/reformation/susilo-bambang-yudhoyono/item7596

Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono | Biography & Facts | Britannica. (n.d.). Www.britannica.com. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Susilo-Bambang-Yudhoyono

Reappraising the Economic Legacy of Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono. (n.d.). Thediplomat.com. https://thediplomat.com/2021/09/reappraising-the-economic-legacy-of-susilo-bambang-yudhoyono/

• Prioritized infrastructure development in several points of Indonesia.

• Build global politic connection more.

• Reducing corruption

Economic:

• Promoted digital economy and start-ups.

• Increased foreign debt for development projects.

• Handling raw materials processing (e.g., nickel ban)

• Indonesia becomes Southeast's first trillion-dollar economy.

Social:

• Expanded universal healthcare (BPJS).

• Hold social-cultural connectivity as developing investment and infrastructure development.

• helping the poor by improving public services

• Handled the COVID-19 pandemic response

References:

Jokowi: Rise of a polite populist - Inside Indonesia: The peoples and cultures of Indonesia. (2025). Insideindonesia.org. https://www.insideindonesia.org/editions/elections-2014/jokowi-rise-of-a-polite-populist

Hollar, S. (2018). Joko Widodo | Biography & Facts. In Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joko-Widodo

Translation, O. of A. to D. C. S. for S. D. &. (2023, December 4). President Jokowi: Infrastructure Development Aims to Boost Logistics Cost Efficiency, Socio-Cultural Connectivity. Sekretariat Kabinet Republik Indonesia. https://setkab.go.id/en/president-jokowi-infrastructure-development-aims-to-logistics-cost-efficiency-socio-cultural-connectivity/

• In the midst of global challenges he emphasized the importance of the basic values ​​outlined by the nation's founders in the 1945 Constitution.

• Part of the military career and education journey.

• Had put himself as a president candidate for the last three election period before finally being elected.

Economic:

• Idea of the principles of Pancasila Economics

• Planning to focus on Indonesia's resources that are exported abroad, while its people receive little benefit from this wealth. How to process the resources.

• Established the FREE LUNCH program.

Social:

• addressing this crisis of economic justice is an important step in maintaining social cohesion and political stability in Indonesia.

References:

Understanding Prabowo’s Mindset and Economic Concept – The PRAKARSA. (2024). Theprakarsa.org. https://theprakarsa.org/en/memahami-alam-pikir-dan-konsep-ekonomi-prabowo/

Jaffrey, S., & Warburton, E. (2024). Prabowo’s Indonesia: Inheriting Democracy at Dusk. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2024/10/prabowos-indonesia-inheriting-democracy-at-dusk?lang=en

From Political Pariah to President: Prabowo Subianto and the Perils of Populism in Indonesia - ECPS. (2024, October 24). ECPS. https://www.populismstudies.org/from-political-pariah-to-president-prabowo-subianto-and-the-perils-of-populism-in-indonesia/