VEISHINAVI D/O MURUGAN 229953

SORNAH D/O SIVAM 229596

ZHENG JIAYI 227216

QIAO MIN 228643

DEITRA 231180

ADAM 227262

SHUMITTHA 231689

NAINIKA 231635

IZZAH ATHIRAH 229485

SITI AISYAH HUMAITAH BT HAMKA 222471

FISA JULIANA A/P KONG CHONG LEONG 229001

AL SHEHHI LATIFA ALI MOHAMMED 226570

SUMEETRRA 231704

THANALOSHINY 231711

ADRIANA 227284

NOR ALIYA SAFIYA 227629

GENEVIEVE FUNG 231249

CHIN JI WEI 228995

1) can be weakened by fire and requires fire protection

- Steel's vulnerability to extreme heat requires architects to integrate active and passive fire protection systems, fundamentally shaping building design, layouts, and aesthetics.

2) Its manufacture is energy intensive

-steel requires a massive amount of energy and carbon to produce, modern architectural design now focuses on reducing its environmental footprint. Architects achieve this by optimizing material usage (e.g., using high-strength alloys), embracing Modular Prefabrication to eliminate waste.

3)tends to corrode and expand in the presence of moisture , requiring protection by alloying or protective coatings

-Steel’s high sensitivity to moisture profoundly shapes architectural design by mandating specific material selections, facade articulation, and building envelope details. Because unprotected steel is susceptible to oxidation (rust) and condensation when exposed to temperatu

re gradients

It resists the highest local wind pressure, and the steel structure factory building will not be pulled off by negative wind pressure.

The wind resistance performance is related to the bearing capacity and density of the steel beams and columns of the steel structure workshop.

2. Lightning protection for steel structure workshops:

Lead lightning to the ground to prevent lightning from penetrating the roof of steel structure workshops and entering the room.

3. The sound insulation effect of the steel structure factory building:

The sound insulation effect is related to the density and thickness of the sound insulation material. It should be noted that the sound insulation materials have different blocking effects on different frequencies of sound.It also prevents sound from being transmitted indoors or from indoors to outdoors.

https://www.directorsteelstructure.com/5-factors-building-a-steel-structure-workshop/

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Ain 231457

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Steel has a high strength-to-weight ratio, allowing buildings to support heavy loads while using slimmer structural elements. It also makes it possible to create large open spaces with fewer columns.

2. Durability and Maintenance

Steel is durable and can last for many years when properly maintained. However, it needs protection against rust and corrosion, especially in humid or tropical climates, through coatings or paint.

3. Cost and Construction Speed

Steel structures can be prefabricated in factories, which speeds up the construction process and reduces site work. Although construction is faster, the material and fabrication costs may sometimes be higher compared to other structural systems.

LEONG QIAO MIN 228643

NAYYARASINTA DEITRA ALISHYA 231180

IMRAN ADAM ALI 227262

SUMEETRRA RAVINDRAN 231704

THANALOSHINY SUBRAMANIAM 231711

ADRIANA AISYA BINTI KHAIRULANUAR 227284

1. Large Column-Free Space

- frames can span long distances without many internal columns. For multipurpose hall because easier movement flexible space arrangement suitable for events, sports, exhibitions, assembly.

2. Strong but Lightweight

- Steel has a high strength to weight ratio. faster construction, reduced foundation load, durable and stable structure, easier future extension or modification. Usually common use in warehouse and hall

3. Suitable for High Ceiling Design

- can support tall roof structures efficiently. This for better ventilation, more natural lighting opportunities, spacious interior feeling, accommodates stage lighting or sports activities

Steel has a high strength-to-weight ratio, allowing buildings to support heavy loads while using slimmer structural elements. It also makes it possible to create large open spaces with fewer columns.

2. Durability and Maintenance

Steel is durable and can last for many years when properly maintained. However, it needs protection against rust and corrosion, especially in humid or tropical climates, through coatings or paint.

3. Cost and Construction Speed

Steel structures can be prefabricated in factories, which speeds up the construction process and reduces site work. Although construction is faster, the material and fabrication costs may sometimes be higher compared to other structural systems.

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Nur Ain Qistina Binti Adzhar 231457

Nur Huda Binti Mohd Akhir 229650

2) Corrosion and Maintenance
Steel can rust when exposed to moisture, humidity, or coastal environments. It need to consider a protective coatings or paints to prevent corrosion.

3) Thermal Expansion
Steel expands and contracts when the temperature changes. If not properly designed, this movement can cause cracking or deformation in the building.

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SAIF MUHANNAD A.MAHDI 231695

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Steel can corrode when exposed to moisture and weather. This affects the durability and appearance of the building, so architects need to add protective coatings, cladding or maintenance systems, which may increase cost and influence the design aesthetics.

2. Poor Fire Resistance
Steel loses strength at high temperatures and may deform during a fire. Because of this, architects must include fireproof materials such as concrete encasement or fire-resistant coatings which can affect the size, form and interior space planning of the building.

3. High Maintenance and Cost
Steel structures require regular maintenance to prevent rust and damage. The higher construction and maintenance costs may limit architectural choices, materials and complex design ideas, especially for projects with limited budgets.

large span capability

- span long distances without requiring internal columns, creating an unobstructed hall space

Strong yet lightweight structure

- the triangulated steel members distribute loads efficiently, making the structure lightweight while still providing high stability

Prefabricated

- speed up construction time, improves accuracy, reduces and on site labor.

https://www.honglusteel.com/discuss-the-advantages-and-disadvantages-of-space-frame-steel-structure/

2. Corrosion
Steel can rust easily and this requires coating and usual maintenance, influencing the facade design and increasing long term maintenance.

3. Thermal Expansion
Steel expands and contracts with temperature changes. Therefore, adding flexible details and joints to prevent damage might affect the building’s form and construction details.

Disadvantages of steel structure houses https://share.google/dTla22VEj1ug61dKt

1. Strength-to-Weight Ratio and Design Freedom

Structural steel is highly efficient because it has an exceptional strength-to-weight ratio in both tension and compression (Structural Materials-Steel, n.d.). This high strength allows engineers to design long, column-free internal spans and thinner structural profiles (IspatGuru, 2015). Using lighter steel components reduces the overall dead load of the building, which directly lowers foundation costs while maximizing usable floor space (IspatGuru, 2015).

2. Vulnerability to Fire and Corrosion

While steel is noncombustible, its strength and stiffness drop drastically when exposed to the high temperatures of a building fire (Structural Materials-Steel, n.d.). Because of this structural degradation, steel frames must be protected with code-compliant insulation like drywall enclosures, spray-on fireproofing, or intumescent paint (Structural Materials-Steel, n.d.). Additionally, steel is prone to rust when exposed to moisture. This is requiring protective coatings or alloying to avoid long-term structural failure (Structural Materials-Steel, n.d.; SteelConstruction.info, n.d.).

3. Connection and Assembly Methods

Because steel structures are assembled from prefabricated parts rather than cast as a single unit, connection details are critical to the building's stability. Workers primarily use high-strength bolts or electric arc welding to join members (Structural Materials-Steel, n.d.). Bolting is faster and easier for field assembly but creates specific tearing and shearing stresses at the joints (Structural Materials-Steel, n.d.). Welding creates a seamless, incredibly strong connection but is expensive, highly technical, and requires strict non-destructive testing like ultrasonic checks to ensure safety (Structural Materials-Steel, n.d.).

material that use https://www.ispatguru.com/structural-steel-preferred-material-for-construction/

https://www.steelconstruction.info/Steel_material_properties

Steel has a high strength-to-weight ratio, allowing architects to create large open spaces with fewer columns. This gives more freedom for flexible layouts, longer spans, and unique forms such as curves and cantilevers, making modern and innovative designs possible. (Altintas Steel, 2023)

2. Faster Construction

Steel components are prefabricated off-site and assembled quickly on-site. This shortens construction time, improves accuracy, and allows architects to plan more efficient building systems and modular designs. Faster construction also reduces site disruption. (Altintas Steel, 2023)

3. Sustainability

Steel is recyclable and reusable, reducing construction waste and environmental impact. Its durability also increases building lifespan, supporting sustainable architectural design and green building practices. (Altintas Steel, 2023)

Reference

Altintas Steel. (2023). Advantages of Steel Structures. Retrieved from  Altintas Steel Official Website

Steel rapidly loses its strength and stiffness at high temperatures (around 550°C), making it vulnerable to structural failure during a fire. 

2. Susceptibility to Corrosion

Steel tends to corrode and expand when exposed to moisture and oxygen over time. 

3. High Slenderness and Buckling Under Compression

Because steel is exceptionally strong, sections can be designed very thin. However, these slender elements are highly susceptible to buckling under compressive loads. 

• Steel can rust when exposed to moisture and air.

• Architects need to add protective coatings and cladding systems.

• Increases maintenance requirements and building cost.

• May affect the visual appearance of exposed steel elements.

https://peb.steelprogroup.com/steel-structure/knowledge/what-is-ss/?utm

2. Poor Fire Resistance

• Steel loses strength quickly under high temperatures.

• Additional fireproof materials are needed in the design.

• Increases wall thickness and construction cost.

• Limits the use of exposed steel aesthetics in architecture.

https://www.sciencing.com/disadvantages-steel-structures-6889311/?utm

3. High Initial Cost and Design Complexity

• Steel structures require skilled labour and precise fabrication.

• Complex connections increase design and construction difficulty.

• Higher material and installation costs may limit design ideas.

• Architects must coordinate closely with engineers and fabricators.

https://www.gharpedia.com/blog/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-steel-structures/?utm

-Steel system

Portal frame structure

Reason:

1. Large Column-Free Space

- frames can span long distances without many internal columns. For multipurpose hall because easier movement flexible space arrangement suitable for events, sports, exhibitions, assembly.

2. Strong but Lightweight

- Steel has a high strength to weight ratio. faster construction, reduced foundation load, durable and stable structure, easier future extension or modification. Usually common use in warehouse and hall

3. Suitable for High Ceiling Design

- can support tall roof structures efficiently. This for better ventilation, more natural lighting opportunities, spacious interior feeling, accommodates stage lighting or sports activities

Steel is highly valued for its high strength-to-weight ratio, allowing it to support massive loads while remaining relatively lightweight compared to concrete.

Static and Dynamic Loads: Designers must calculate all dead loads (building weight), live loads (occupants and furniture), and lateral loads (wind and seismic activity).

Deflection & Span: Steel can span large open areas without needing intermediate columns, but engineers must carefully manage deflection (bending or sagging) to ensure structural rigidity and stability under load.

2. Environmental Exposure & Protection Measures

Unprotected steel can compromise a building's durability over time, making environmental factors a key consideration in the material selection.

Corrosion Resistance: Steel is vulnerable to rust in high-humidity or coastal environments. Builders must utilize protective coatings, specialized painting, or galvanized treatments to ensure long-lasting performance.

Fire Resistance: While steel does not burn, it loses its structural strength at high temperatures. Steel members usually require applied fireproofing (such as intumescent coatings or fire-rated boards) to maintain their load-bearing capacity in the event of a fire.

3. Fabrication, Erection, & Logistics

The efficiency of a steel structure heavily depends on the logistics of getting it from the fabrication shop to the construction site.

Connection Design: Steel components must be joined using either bolted or welded connections. The chosen method affects both the structural strength and the on-site labor time.

Speed vs. Cost: Because steel is often prefabricated, it allows for fast on-site assembly, significantly reducing construction time. However, structural complexities (like heavy custom bracing or crane limitations) can increase fabrication and erection costs.

Engineers analyze building codes, heights, and room spans to calculate the total weight and forces a structure must support. This data dictates the exact steel strength grades and beam shapes required to keep the building safe and rigid.

2. Environment and Corrosion Resistance

Moisture and salt in humid or coastal areas cause steel to rust, which destroys its structural strength over time. To prevent this, designers use resilient alloys like stainless steel or shield standard steel with protective finishes like galvanizing and anti-corrosive coatings.

3. Fire Protection and Vulnerability

While steel does not burn, it softens and loses its strength dramatically in high temperatures. To prevent collapse, engineers insulate it by enclosing members in fire-rated drywall, spraying hidden beams with a rough insulating slurry, or applying intumescent paint that swells into a heat-blocking foam crust.

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Reason 1

Large Clear Span (Column-Free Space)

The rigid joints allow the frame to span 20–40 m or more without intermediate supports. This creates a wide, unobstructed hall ideal for sports, events, assemblies, or exhibitions where flexible space is required.

Reason 2

Efficient for High Roof & Load Resistance

The triangular action of the rafters and columns efficiently transfers roof loads, wind loads, and lateral forces down to the foundations. The haunched knee joint strengthens the critical bending zone, making it ideal for high ceiling conditions and long roof slopes.

Reason 3

Fast Construction & Cost Efficiency

Portal frames are typically prefabricated steel members that are quickly assembled on site. Fewer members, repetitive bays, and simple connections reduce construction time, labor, and cost compared to trusses or conventional beam-column systems.

Fast construction and flexible design

Strong and lightweight

https://www.steelconstruction.info/Single_storey_industrial_buildings

While steel is non-combustible, it loses its structural integrity rapidly when exposed to high temperatures.Therefore, a steel structural system must always be paired with a robust fireproofing strategy to meet local building codes.

2. Buckling and Slenderness Ratios

Because steel is incredibly strong, structural members (like columns and beams) can be made much thinner and more slender than their concrete or masonry counterparts.

3. Corrosion Control and Environmental Exposure

Steel is highly susceptible to oxidation (rusting) when exposed to moisture and oxygen. Corrosion reduces the cross-sectional area of the structural members over time.

Reference : https://www.google.com/search?q=https://doi.org/10.1061/41130(369)215

3 Reasons Why:

1.Column-Free Clear Span:

It can span wide distances without needing any middle pillars. This provides a completely open, unobstructed floor space for sports and events.

2.Moment-Resisting Knee Joints:

High-ceiling halls face strong wind loads. The Haunching (Knee Joint) uses grouped bolts to create a rigid connection that safely resists and transfers these heavy side forces.

3.Easy Assembly of Cladding & Roof:

The structural frame makes it simple to attach secondary pieces. Wall girts can support side cladding, and Z-purlins fit directly onto the rafters to carry the roof sheets easily.

https://www.steelconstruction.info/Portal_frames

https://www.steelconstruction.info/Structural_steelwork_specification

A multipurpose hall requires a large uninterrupted space for activities such as exhibitions, sports, events, or assemblies. Steel portal frames can span large distances without internal columns, creating a flexible open-plan area.

2) High Strength and Durability

Steel has a high strength-to-weight ratio, making the structure strong yet relatively lightweight. It can withstand heavy roof loads, wind loads, and long spans while maintaining structural stability. Steel is also durable and long-lasting when properly protected from corrosion.

3) Fast and Economical Construction

Steel portal frames are usually prefabricated in factories and assembled on-site quickly. This reduces construction time, labour cost, and material waste, making it a cost-effective solution for large-span buildings like multipurpose halls.

https://kobexprojekt.eu/en/offer/steel-portal-frame-hall-design/

Threat of Rust

Steel rusts quickly when exposed to moisture and air, architects cannot simply leave it bare without a plan. To keep the building safe and looking good, they either have to invest in expensive protective coatings like galvanization or hide the steel entirely behind cladding, which changes the overall look and bulk of the building.

Vulnerability to Extreme Heat

Even though steel does not burn, it loses its strength rapidly during a fire and can buckle under the building's weight. This forces architects to design around bulky fireproofing materials like wrapping the steel in drywall or spraying it with thick insulation, which ruins the slim, minimalist aesthetic they might have been aiming for.

Risk of Buckling

Steel is incredibly strong, allowing for very thin columns, but these thin pieces can easily bend or buckle under heavy, compressive loads. To prevent this, designers have to add diagonal bracing walls or X-frames, which can block views, disrupt open floor plans, and limit where windows can be placed.

3 Key Reasons:

1. Large column-free span

A space truss system can achieve a very large column-free open space (tens of meters in span), which perfectly meets the demand of a multipurpose hall for flexible layout, unobstructed sightlines, and versatile use for events, gatherings, or activities, while matching the high ceiling design.

2. Light weight & high structural rigidity

Compared with traditional concrete long-span structures or heavy steel beams, space trusses have lower self-weight but excellent overall structural rigidity. This effectively controls deflection and deformation in the high-ceiling, long-span condition, ensuring the safety and comfort of the building.

3. Flexible design & efficient construction

Space trusses can adapt to various roof shapes (flat, sloped, curved) to meet aesthetic requirements for the multipurpose hall. Also, steel members can be prefabricated in factories and assembled on-site, which greatly speeds up construction, shortens the project cycle, and simplifies later maintenance.

1. Strength and Structural Performance
   Steel has a very high strength-to-weight ratio compared to many other construction materials. This allows steel structures to support heavy loads while using slimmer columns and beams. Because of this, architects can design buildings with larger open spaces and longer spans without too many internal supports. Steel is also suitable for high-rise buildings because it can resist both vertical and lateral loads effectively.

2. Construction Speed and Flexibility
   Another important factor is the speed of construction. Most steel components are prefabricated in factories before being transported to the construction site for assembly. This helps reduce construction time and improves accuracy. Steel structures are also flexible in design because they can be modified, extended, or dismantled more easily than reinforced concrete structures. This gives architects more freedom in planning future changes to the building.

3. Durability, Fire Resistance, and Maintenance
   Although steel is strong, it can corrode when exposed to moisture and humid weather conditions, especially in tropical countries like Malaysia. Therefore, protective coatings such as paint or galvanising are required to prevent rusting. Steel also loses strength when exposed to very high temperatures during a fire. Because of this, fireproofing materials and insulation systems are important to maintain the safety and stability of the structure.

Reference:
Lie, T.T. (1978). Fire Resistance of Structural Steel. Engineering Journal, 15(4), 116–125.  Engineering Journal Article