However, scientists believed that the primary domesticated bird has hybridized with Gallus Bonnaratii throughout the years due to changes in genetics. Moreover, scientific proof has also found that the Grey Jungle-fowl can be seen in the Chinese Brahmas and the Indian Gamebird  also identified as Cornish (The Ohio State University, 2019). 

Joris Peters et al (2022), claimed the expansion of poultry began with the history of cockfighting, which was believed to be originated in South East Asia. Additionally, through colonization of countries and trading, the concept of poultry has been broadcasted globally from South East Asia to Middle Eastern and Europe. 

 Modernised genetics and dietetics research have contributed to poultry farming. As the population has been growing, the demand for the poultry industry has also increased especially in the late 19th and earlier 20th centuries (Naushad Khan, et al,2021).

Moreover, these breeds can be further categorized as whether they are broiler or layer production.

Broiler breed - Cornish, Orpington, and Plymouth Rock.

Layer breed - Rhode Island, White Leghorn, and Ancona.

  

Farmers

Economy

Moreover, farm B built a ‘curtain wall’ building that senses the outdoor temperature. In conditions where the temperature is warm, the building will convert into a modern tunnel ventilated building, but it will go into a natural ventilation mode where the curtains raise or lower during moderate temperature. This system uses sensors which is an example of a cyber-physical system, to provide optimum temperature for the chickens. A cyber-physical system is a computer system in which a mechanism is controlled by computer-based algorithms [2]. This building is also equipped with a barn scraper that removes the manure from inside the building and is automated through a controller. This gives benefits to the breeder in terms of rodent and fly control as well as air quality.

Furthermore, in the hatchery, after the eggs are incubated, they are passed through an embryo detection machine to check the heartbeats before they go into the hatcher. Additionally, the machine will show on screen which eggs are fertile and which are not. Autonomous transfer system will then pick up only the fertile eggs to ensure there is no bacterial infection from the decomposition of non-viable embryos (non-fertile eggs). We think that this system falls under smart manufacture since it provides efficiency in egg production. Smart manufacturing processes provide better connection and communication across manufacturing systems [3]. Climate controlled hatcher and trailer are also available in hatchery farms where the temperature, humidity and carbon dioxide can be controlled with food and water can be accessed by the chicks. With the right climate conditions and viable feeds, the chicks would be less stressed and less likely to scream. This may guarantee that the chicks would grow healthily. Hence, the use of antibiotics in chickens can be avoided if the system in this hatchery is modeled. 

Interestingly, in the broiler farm, the married couple are able to monitor the temperature in the barn remotely from home with the help of sensors in the shed. On top of that, they have alarms that are remotely monitored every minute, hour and day as well. In conclusion, Industrial Revolution 4.0 is crucial in poultry farming because not only is it convenient for the breeders and consumers, it is also guaranteeing food security and quality as well as the well-being of chicks and chickens.

 There is knowledge that societal concerns have led to a rise in practices that conform to a standard that is right and good which is in short making sure that animal welfare is well taken care of. There are myriad of ways in which animal welfare is taken care of such taking care of the welfare of the animals during farming, transport, and slaughter.

During the process of farming and keeping animals in a farm, the farmers themselves have to ensure that the animals are given the right diet for optimal growth and health. Areas in which the animal resides in has to be appropriate for the certain animal. Adding on, the right knowledge on the handling the animals on the farm by the farmer should be sufficient as this will be able to ensure a healthy animal.  Moreover, harmful practices that are practiced on pigs, sheep and dairy cattle should be avoided such as tail docking which usually involves cruel methods such as cutting with a knife or scalpel, cutting with a hot docking iron, or application of a constrictive rubber ring.

To add on during the transport process of animals, many essential requirements are to be taken into account such as the fitness of the animal, the age of the animal, the space the animal has during transport and also the morality of the person attending and accompanying the animal. When it comes to the fitness of the animal, they should be of good health taking into consideration heavily pregnant females, any open wounds, and are not carrying diseases that can be spread towards their cell mates. What’s more, it is not encouraged to transport any newborn mammal in which their navel is not fully healed. Additionally, the space in which these animals are transported in need to have appropriate space according to their size, contain bedding and sufficient food and water if the transport is long, hygienic and lastly be sturdy enough as to withstand the weight of the animal. Lastly, the person who attends to the animal must avoid abusing the animal, such as causing the animal mental stress, prodding the animal in a sensitive place, poke the animal with a sharp object on many more.

Following that, during the slaughter of the animal, the most ethical practice would be to minimize the pain, suffering and distress of the animal. Some main principals are killing is instant, the animal is instantly made unconscious, stunned, the method of killing is not aversive or unpleasant. Some main methods of slaughter practiced around the world would be electrocuting the animal by stunning them, percussive in which the head is dealt with a deadly blow, controlled atmosphere in which oxygen gas is limited to the animal and lastly bleeding in which the that varies from species to species.

To conclude animal welfare during the time in which they are alive should be prioritized. These animals are sentient being able to feel emotion such as happiness and distress. Respecting them through providing them a comfortable environment is the least we could do when they provide us humans sustenance.

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European Food Safety Authority. (2023, March 28). Animal welfare. https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/topic/animal-welfare

Fields, H. (2019, August 15). Poultry Breed Classes. EcoFarming Daily. https://www.ecofarmingdaily.com/raise-healthy-livestock/chickens/poultry-breed-classes/

Frost on Chickens | Standard Varieties of Chickens: I. The American Class. (n.d.). https://www.nal.usda.gov/exhibits/ipd/frostonchickens/items/show/277

Grouw, H. V., & Dekkers, W. (2020, September 21). Temminck’s Gallus giganteus; a gigantic obstacle to Darwin’s theory of domesticated fowl origin? www.bioone.org. https://bioone.org/journals/bulletin-of-the-british-ornithologists-club/volume-140/issue-3/bboc.v140i3.2020.a5/Temmincks-Gallus-giganteus-a-gigantic-obstacle-to-Darwins-theory-of/10.25226/bboc.v140i3.2020.a5.full

Hawley, F. (n.d.). Cockfighting. okhistory.org. https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=CO012#:~:text=The%20history%20of%20cockfighting%20goes,it%20originated%20in%20Southeast%20Asia.

Human Slaughter : Overview. (n.d.).
https://www.compassioninfoodbusiness.com/media/7427576/humane-slaughter-summary.pdf

Laatsch, D. R. (n.d.-a). Origin and History of the Chicken. Livestock. https://livestock.extension.wisc.edu/articles/origin-and-history-of-the-chicken/

Let’s Talk Chicken. (2017, May 5). Broiler breeder farm | Let’s Talk Chicken. Let’s Talk Chicken |. https://letstalkchicken.ca/farm-to-table/breeder-farm/

Nkukwana, T. T. (2018). Global poultry production: Current impact and future outlook on the South African poultry industry | South African Journal of Animal Science. https://www.ajol.info/index.php/sajas/article/view/181613

Peters, J., Lebrasseur, O., Irving-Pease, E. K., Paxinos, P. D., Best, J., Smallman, R., Callou, C., Gardeisen, A., Trixl, S., Frantz, L., Sykes, N., Fuller, D. Q., & Larson, G. (2022). The biocultural origins and dispersal of domestic chickens. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 119(24). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2121978119

Poultry farming | Description, Techniques, Types, & Facts. (1998, September 28). Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/poultry-farming/Types-of-poultry

SELECTING A TURKEY VARIETY FOR SMALL OR BACKYARD POULTRY FLOCKS – Small and backyard poultry. (n.d.). https://poultry.extension.org/articles/getting-started-with-small-and-backyard-poultry/selecting-birds-to-get-for-a-small-or-backyard-poultry-flock/selecting-a-turkey-variety-for-small-or-backyard-poultry-flocks/

Vedantu. (2022, November 29). Poultry Farming. VEDANTU. https://www.vedantu.com/biology/poultry-farming

VPM. (2014, December 18). Poultry Production from Start to Finish [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W1gwRaypD7U

Welfare of animals during transport | Business Companion. (n.d.). https://www.businesscompanion.info/en/quick-guides/animals-and-agriculture/welfare-of-animals-during-transport

[1] What is Industry 4.0? How Does it Work? (A Beginners Guide). (n.d.). TWI. https://www.twi-global.com/what-we-do/research-and-technology/technologies/industry-4-0

[3] What is smart manufacturing, and how is it changing the industry? (n.d.). Texas a&M University Engineering. https://engineering.tamu.edu/news/2022/03/what-is-smart-manufacturing-and-how-is-it-changing-the-industry.html

[2] Wikipedia contributors. (2023, January 17). Cyber-physical system. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyber-physical_system

World Animal Protection. (n.d.). Farm animal welfare. https://www.worldanimalprotection.org/our-work/animals-farming