The physical health of the planet is indeed in danger. it is not too late.

In most cases, the underlying causes of ecological degradation are political; and where they are not, the human consequences of natural disasters, including maldistributed relief, are.

In general, the state has continuously perpetrated the ideology of control necessary for this process, though it has also acted to mitigate some of the environmental excesses that result from it.

This is evident in both reformist and radical senses: whether we are enacting energy taxes, passing wildlife protection legislation, negotiating treaties to establish regulatory regimes for marine oil pollution, or resisting the communal value of corporate culture and centralized decisionmaking, we are engaging in politics.

In other words, by looking at environmental problems as political problems, ecological thought is arguably well positioned to help IR theory refine its own understanding of order, peace, security, and power (its traditional explananda).

Three basic views of nature: Western, Sineatic, and Indian.

We adopt an eclectic notion of ecology—as scientific field and as philosophical reflection, as a descriptive and ordering enterprise and as a normative investigation.

Conservationism is an appropriate label for this brand of ecological thought: beyond sustaining our survival, nature may be legitimately conceived as a pool of natural resources to be used for the primary purpose of economic growth.

In this sense, most (but not all) radical ecologists reject ecological anthropocentrism, which subordinates “nature” to “humanhood.”

a) Do those traditions mention the theme of ecology, and if so, what ecological perspectives do they reflect? b) Do those traditions possibly contribute to the process of ecological degradation, through their own ontologies, epistemologies, and policy prescriptions

Critical IR, on the other hand, makes only passing references to ecology, although one can see how congenial Critical IR is with radical ecology and this is a link that we explore in substantial detail in Chapter 5

Clearly, and as hinted above, ecology has been used as a realist theme—scarcity breeds conflict, and theorists of environmental conflict have adequately mapped out the process by which, say, land erosion or increased flooding may provoke intra/ inter-state crisis/conflict.

Similarly, ecological thought may be used as a critique of liberal IR theory. Liberals have also used ecology, treating environmental issues as case studies for theories of cooperation and compliance and so has appeared the concept of an environmental regime, and resurfaced the statement that natural-resource experts may be/have been empowered to depoliticize contentious international issues

In fact, ecological thought itself, at least in its radical form, is already tributary to critical theory (beyond IR)

Environmental issues - environmental politics / global environmental issues / environmental governance

Collective (in)action - collective action problem

Trigger of conflict - environmental security / conflict linkage

“Mainstream IR theory tends to regard global ecological change as yet another item on the agenda of international politics — largely absorbed by cooperation or conflict frameworks.” (p. 4)

“What remains underdeveloped is a conceptual account of how environment-related issues challenge the foundational ontologies of IR theory, including the idea of security and state-centric conflict.” (p. 12)

“The ecological literature thus invites IR scholars to reconceive the environment not simply as an area for cooperation, but as a lens through which the very structure of international (in)action might be reassessed.” (p. 13)

Interdisciplinary scientific perspective - Interdisciplinarity / systems thinking

Earth holistically / integrated system - Holism / planetary systems approach

Self-regulating biogeochemical system - Homeostasis / ecological balance / feedback mechanisms

Thinking globally - Global consciousness / planetary perspective / global interdependence

“Systems theory is a conceptual tool for separating one part of the universe from the rest …”

“Holism helps us to see that systems are more than the sum of their parts … Likewise, Gaia’s emergent properties arise out of the interaction of Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere (soils and rocks), hydrosphere, and biosphere.”

“Gaia theory predicts that when a species’ actions favour both its environment and itself, it will tend to spread.”

“Humanity is now operating on a Gaian scale.”

“Gaia’s planetary perspective reminds us that we are all in this together."

Sustainable development — Eco-development / green modernization / integrated sustainability

Ecologically inclusive economic indicators — Green national accounting / sustainability metrics / genuine progress indicators

Integration of environmental considerations — Environmental mainstreaming / policy coherence for sustainability / systemic ecological integration

Economic and social development — Human-centred growth / equitable prosperity / sustainable modernization

“…environmental security is akin to more expansive notions of global or human security, bringing together the twin pursuit of development and sustainability.” (p. 361)

“…long-term solutions will require a willingness to grapple with deeper social, economic, and political roots.” (p. 360)

“…all fields of social practice and analysis, including international relations, are being compelled to widen their vision.” (p. 359)

“…the greening of international relations has entailed a movement away from its traditional state-centric orientation.” (p. 359)

“…bringing together the twin pursuit of development and sustainability.” (p. 361)

History of a society – Social structure / institutions / macro-level forces

Understanding both – Interrelation / intersection of personal and social / synthesis of micro and macro

"The facts of contemporary history are also facts about the success and the failure of individual men and women"

"The sociological imagination enables its possessor to understand the larger historical scene in terms of its meaning for the inner life and the external career of a variety of individuals.”

intergovernmental bargaining – diplomatic negotiation, state-level negotiation, international diplomacy, policy bargaining

internationalization of production – globalization of production, global supply chains, transnational manufacturing, economic integration

transnational suffering – cross-border hardship, global distress, international human suffering, transboundary adversity

impacted groups – affected populations, vulnerable communities, influenced groups, disadvantaged sectors

“All in all, planet Earth’s ‘biotic capacity’ has been put into serious question… it is to recognize the formidable scale and speed at which ecological degradation has operated in the late contemporary period”

Negotiating treaties to establish regulatory regimes for marine oil pollution

Contemporary ideologies of growth and power… have harnessed the forces of science and technology to create large markets for high value-added goods. In the process, ‘natural resources’ have been mined at staggering levels

Radical ecologists are specifically social theorists, who see in degraded nature an attack on the weak and marginalized

“The rapid industrial take-over of nature constituted an absurdity, a perversion of the ‘biotic ideal’ of humankind… thus arose a ‘preservationist’ reaction”

Open access - unrestricted access, free availability, non-restricted use, universal access

Resources - natural resources, raw materials, commodities, ecological assets

Disastrous consequences - severe impacts, catastrophic outcomes, harmful effects, negative repercussions

“Trade, as open as possible within a world of sovereign states.”

“Functional control and planning,” “resource management,” “environmental authority.”

“Is there any way that such law could truly reflect a sui generis global consensus…? Most proposals… lead anywhere but to a new form of statism — of ‘machinery’.”

I maintain that an appreciation for the ways in which "environmental security" and "ecological interdependence" are socially constructed has important theoretical and policy implications. (Litfin, 1999, p. 360)

“Ecological degradation, from tropical deforestation to ozone depletion to toxic waste trade, is a corollary of existing economic practices” (Litfin, 1999, p. 368)

ambiguous symbol

policy positions

analytical positions

2) environmental security

ecological interdependence

social construction

theoretical implications

policy implications

3) ecological degradation

deforestation

ozone depletion

toxic waste trade

economic practices

structural causes

externalities

“Environmental problems are simultaneously physical phenomena and social constructions.”

“An authentic environmental security agenda for the twenty-first century, therefore, must somehow harmonize economic and ecological interdependence."

“Although it would be reckless to deny that environmental problems have real physical referents and consequences, it is important to recognize that ‘problems’ always presume a prior social process of recognition, prioritization, and some level of assent.”